Condition in which a person otherwise limited in cognitive ability has an exceptional specific skill

Chapter 10(10.1-10.2)-What is intelligence?-●Intelligence- the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and useknowledge to adapt to new situationsSpearman’s General Intelligence Factor and Thurstone’s response-●General intelligence (g)- a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman andothers, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on anintelligence test●factor analysis- a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items●L. L. Thurstone- identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities (word fluency, verbalcomprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, andmemory)●Several distinct abilities tend to cluster together and to correlate enough to define a generalintelligence factorTheories of Multiple Intelligences-Gardner’s multiple intelligences-●Howard Gardner has identified eight relatively independent intelligences●He also proposed a ninth possible intelligence—existential intelligence—the ability “toponder large questions about life, death, existence.”●Savant syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has anexceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing●About 4 in 5 people with savant syndrome are males, and many also have autism spectrumdisorder (ASDSternberg’s Three intelligences-●Sternberg thought we had 3 intelligences-○Analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence○Creative intelligence○Practical intelligence●Multiple abilities can contribute to life success, and differing varieties of giftedness add spiceto life and challenges for educationCriticisms of multiple intelligence theories-●gmatters, It predicts performance on various complex tasks and in various jobs●Success is a combination of talent with grit(10.3-10.6)-Emotional Intelligence-

●social intelligence- the know-how involved in social situations and managing yourselfsuccessfully●Emotional intelligence- the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions●Emotionally intelligent people are both socially aware and self-awareAssessing Intelligence-●Intelligence test- a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparingthem with those of others, using numerical scores●Achievement test- a test designed to assess what a person has learned●Aptitude test- a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is thecapacity to learnEarly and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities-Francis Galton: Belief in hereditary Genius-●Created nature vs. nurture●Although science itself strives for objectivity, individual scientists are affected by their ownassumptions and attitudesAlfred Binet: Predicting School Achievement-●Mental age- a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronologicalage that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does

People-

Howard Gardner: believed that an IQ score measured only a limited range of human mental abilities

Multiple intelligences:

a.       Linguistic: word

b.      Logical-mathematical: number/reasoning

c.       Musical: music

d.      Spatial: picture

e.      Bodily-kinesthetic: body

f.        Intrapersonal: self

g.       Interpersonal: people

h.      Naturalist

Lewis Terman: revised and perfected Binet-Simon scale for American populations which soon became known as the "Stanford-Binet;” Terman's "Termites" as they are known were chosen to test the early ripe-early rot myth, proving that the gifted were taller, healthier, physically better developed, superior in leadership and social adaptability, dispelling the often held contrary opinion

Charles Spearman: thought intelligence was a general factor behind all of our mental ability (Catell's fluid and crystallized intelligence)

Robert Sternberg: believed our intelligence is best classified into three areas (triarchic) that predict real-world success:

a.       Analytical: assessed by intelligence tests which present well- defined problems having a single right answer

b.      Creative: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas

c.       Practical: required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions

L.L. Thurstone: believed our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory

Alfred Binet: created the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised of a variety of tasks Binet and Simon thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages; the scale consisted of thirty tasks of increasing difficulty that measured a child’s mental age; stressed that intellectual development progressed at variable rates and could be influenced by the environment; therefore, intelligence was not based solely on genetics, was malleable rather than fixed, and could only be found in children with comparable backgrounds

Sir Fancis Galton: Galton was the first to develop certain specific mental tests; indeed, it may be said that he initiated the whole idea of mental tests; he began by assuming that intelligence could be measured in terms of one's level of sensory capacity-the higher the intelligence, the higher the level of sensory discrimination; contributed to the idea of the normal curve

Vocabulary-

Intelligence Test: method for assessing an individual’s mental attitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

Intelligence Quotient: (IQ) defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

General Intelligence: (g) factor that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Creativity: the use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): most widely used test; contains verbal and performance subtests

Validity: extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Criterion: behavior that a test is designed to predict

Reification: the perception of an object as having more spatial information than is actually present

Heritability of Intelligence: around 50% determined by the variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetic factors

The Flynn Effect: the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores measured in many parts of the world from roughly 1930 to the present day

Neural Plasticity: the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life; allows the neurons (nerve cells) in the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust their activities in response to new situations or to changes in their environment

Down Syndrome: intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Mental Age: measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically cooresponds to a given level of performance

Intelligence: mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Savant Syndrome: condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, like computation or drawing

Aptitude test: designed to predict a person’s future performance

Standardization: defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Reliability: extent to which a test yields consistent results

Predictive Validity: success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

Stereotype Threat: self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Stanford-Binet: widely used American revision of Binet's original test

Factor Analysis: statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test

Emotional Intelligence: ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

a. Intrapersonal skills: understand and apply emotions

b. Interpersonal skills: people skills

c. Stress management: handle challenges

d. Adaptability: react quickly, and efficiently to change

e. General mood: optimism

Achievement test: designed to assess what a person has learned

Normal Curve: symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

Content Validity: extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Mental Retardation: (intellectual disability) condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demand of life

Types of Tests:

Objective: tests that have one set answer that can be scored easily by a machine

Subjective: tests in which individuals are given ambiguous figured or an open ended question which requires some interpretation and analysis

Questions-

1. Describe the nature of intelligence and discuss whether it is culturally defined or culture-free.

- To most psychologists, intelligence is the capacity for goal-directed and adaptive behavior. Some psychologists argue that intelligent behavior (say, a person's ability to adapt successfully to the demands of school or work) is culturally relative. They maintain that "intelligence" is whatever abilities your culture deems important, and thus intelligence tests will never be culture-free. Others view intelligence as a basic cognitive ability that helps people solve problems and succeed in any environment. They argue that the abstract and novel questions asked on intelligence tests evaluate our abilities to solve problems effectively, regardless of our cultural backgrounds.

2. Describe the factor-analysis approach to understanding intelligence and discuss evidence regarding intelligence as general mental ability and/or as many specific abilities.

-The factor-analysis approach is a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items, such as that those who score high in one area typically score higher than average in other areas as well. Spearmen believe that a common skill set, the g factor, underlies all of our intelligent behavior.

3. Psychologists agree that people have specific abilities, such as verbal and mathematical aptitudes. However, they debate whether a general intelligence (g) factor runs through them all. Factor analysis has identified several clusters of mental abilities, including verbal intelligence, spatial ability, and reasoning ability. Still, there seems to be a small tendency for those who excel in one of the clusters to score well on others. Evidence that brain damage may diminish one ability but not others, as well as studies of savant syndrome, led Howard Gardner to propose his theory of multiple intelligences. Similarly, Robert Sternberg and Richard Wagner distinguish among academic, practical, and creative intelligence. Also distinct from academic intelligence is emotional intelligence-the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Those who are emotionally smart often succeed in careers, marriages, and parenting where other academically smarter (but emotionally less intelligent) people fail.

4. Distinguish between aptitude and achievement tests and describe modern tests of mental abilities.

- Aptitude refers to the capacity to learn and thus aptitude tests are those designed to predict a person's future performance. Achievement tests are designed to assess what a person has learned. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS) is the most widely used intelligence test. It consists of 11 subtests and yields not only an overall intelligence score but also separate "verbal" and "performance" (nonverbal) scores. Striking differences between the two scores alert the examiner to possible learning problems. The tests also provide clues to cognitive strengths that a teacher or employer might build on.

5. Discuss the stability of intelligence test scores and the two extremes of intelligence.

- The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age, with practical predictive value beginning by age 3 and scores becoming fairly stable by age 7. Among infants, those who become quickly bored with a picture, preferring to look at a new one, tend to score well on later intelligence tests.
At one extreme of the normal distribution are people whose intelligence scores fall below 70. To be labeled mentally retarded a child must have both a low test score and difficulty adapting to the normal demands of living independently. Severe mental retardation sometimes results from known physical causes, such as Down syndrome, a disorder attributed to an extra chromosome in the person's genetic makeup. Most mentally challenged adults can, with support, live in mainstream society.
At the other extreme are the "gifted." Contrary to the popular myth that they are frequently maladjusted, research suggests that high-scoring children are healthy, well adjusted, and academically successful. Controversy surrounds "gifted child" programs in which the "gifted" are segregated and given academic enrichment not available to the 95 percent who are "ungifted." Most studies conclude that students grouped by aptitude have academic achievement scores hardly higher than similar students not so grouped, and that this "ability tracking" may lower students' self-esteem and sometimes creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.

6. Discuss evidence for both genetic and environmental influence on intelligence.

- Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together point to the significant heritability of intelligence scores. For example, adopted children's intelligence scores are more like those of their biological parents than those of their adopted parents. These same studies, plus others that compare children reared in extremely impoverished or enriched environments or in different cultures, indicate that life experiences also significantly influence intelligence test scores.

7. Describe group differences in intelligence test scores and show how they can be explained in terms of environmental factors.

- Black Americans average about 15 points lower than white Americans on intelligence tests. Average scores for different subgroups of Hispanics are midway between those for whites and blacks. European New Zealanders outscore native Maori New Zealanders, Israeli Jews outscore Israeli Arabs, and hearing people outscore those born deaf.
The impact of the environment on racial gaps in test scores is evident from a number of studies. For example, the difference in mathematical achievement of Asian and North American children has been linked to the Asians' more fertile academic soil and to different cultural values. Moreover, as educational opportunities moved toward more equality between 1979 and 1996, the black/white difference in combined SAT scores shrank 23 percent.
Girls have tended to outscore boys on spelling tests and in assessments of emotion detection while boys have outscored girls on mental rotation tests and math aptitude tests with a spatial component. Psychologists debate evolutionary and cultural explanations of such differences.

8. Discuss whether intelligence test scores are biased and/or discriminatory.

- Intelligence tests are "biased" in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. However, they are not biased in that they predict as accurately for one group as they do for another. For example, the predictive validity is roughly the same for blacks and whites and for rich and poor.

What is a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill such as in computation or drawing?

Is a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability?

What is a condition in which a person of very limited overall intelligence has a single ability that is truly exceptional?

What is meant by intelligence appears to be polygenic?