There are many different cultures scattered across the world. Each culture has its own way of operating, down to their customs, social and behavioural rules, and what is considered the norm for them; this includes their moral values. Different societies have different goals, attitudes, and beliefs about appropriate behaviour, which needs to be reflected in psychology research! Show
Society and Cross-Cultural ResearchAn issue with a lot of early research is its generalisability. A lot of the older studies tended to focus on white adult men from western culture. Problems arose when these findings were generalised to include everyone, not just those with similar characteristics to the sample used. Cross-cultural research is typically carried out in psychology to identify if a finding based on testing in one culture applies to another. When similar results are found across cultures, the psychological variable measured can be considered generalisable, meaning the psychological variable or research design factors in cross-cultural differences. Cross-cultural research is a systematic study investigating cultural differences in behaviour and phenomenon between two or more cultures. Pins dropped on the world, flaticon.com/amonrat rungreangfangsai There are clear distinctions that are observable between Western and Eastern societies. Western society is also known as an individualistic society. It is characterised by a focus on individual rights and own happiness. Typical behaviours of people in this society are that they voice their opinion, are independent and tend to do things their way. Eastern society is also known as a collectivist society. It is characterised by a focus on the superiority of the collective community and emphasises social support. People in eastern societies are typically reserved and hold traditional views. Typical behaviours within a collective society usually conform to societal rules and have social harmony, so they are less likely to be openly aggressive towards others. The two cultures may have contrasting opinions of what dysfunctional behaviour is. Therefore, when assessing mental health, there may be differences. Cross-cultural research can be carried out to identify differences between individualistic and collectivist societies. In terms of psychological research, there are apparent differences between the characteristics of the two types of society. Therefore, psychological findings found in one society may not be applicable or generalisable to the other. This should be considered when researching topics, such as the effectiveness of an intervention. If the results are over-generalised, people may receive ineffective treatment. Types of Cross-Cultural ResearchCross-cultural research allows researchers to identify if findings apply to the target/broader population. There are three main types of cross-cultural research, these are: Psychological Method Validation of Cross-Cultural ResearchThis type of cross-cultural research is typically used when researchers want to identify if psychological measures/ tests are applicable and generalisable to the population. For instance, if it takes into account cultural differences. Research by Mandy, Charman, Puura and Skuse (2014) applied the DSM-5 (the manual used for mental illness diagnosis in the UK) to see if it considers the difference between British and Finnish people. The study found that there may be cross-cultural variability between the two countries regarding milder autistic characteristics. The research highlights the importance of cross-cultural research as it shows that well-established measures may not apply to the entire population. If similar results are found across cultures, then it can be assumed that the measures are:
Indigenous Cultural StudiesIndigenous cultural studies are the study of minority ethnic groups who live in their native location. These individuals tend to have their rituals, traditions and language, and research has also found developmental differences. The research can take the form of cross-cultural research if the results of indigenous populations are compared to people from other countries. The purpose of this research could be to identify the similarities and differences between populations. In some minority populations in Papua New Guinea, Turkey and the Dominican Republic, it has been found that some children identified as female at birth. Still, at the age of 12 (after the onset of puberty), they started to develop male genitalia. The indigenous cultural study highlights the importance of cross-cultural research as it shows how differences between nature and nurture factors between cultures could lead to this type of intersexuality. Cross-Cultural ComparisonsA cross-cultural comparison study compares the findings of two or more countries. This research design can be used to find similarities and differences across cultures or identify if findings support/disprove hypotheses in different cultures. Usually, this research method is used when we're trying to investigate if one culture will have significantly different (lower or higher) scores compared to another. A cross-cultural research example that takes a comparative approach is Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) study. This study compares the prevalence of attachment styles across eight countries. Cultural connections, flaticon.com/Becris Cross-Cultural Research MethodologiesThe cross-cultural methodology consists of the following steps: Step 1: Identify the research area that will be investigated and form a hypothesis. Step 2: Choosing the appropriate cross-cultural design that will be used. Step 3: Carry out the research. Step 4: Carry out the analysis and report the results. A cross-cultural comparison methodology will be used if the researcher aims to compare results across cultures. And if the researcher is investigating indigenous populations, then an indigenous cultural study would be done. In contrast, if researchers investigate if a psychological test takes cultural differences into account, then a psychological method validation of cross-cultural research would be carried out. The results will emphasise analyses of cross-cultural differences; however, intra-cultural (differences within cultures may also be investigated. Cross-Cultural Research ExamplesVan Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's (1988) study is a cross-cultural research example. The study aimed to identify cross-cultural differences in attachment styles. The study used a cross-cultural comparison and meta-analysis research design. A meta-analysis is a research method that analyses the results from several published studies to conclude whether the data supports or negates the proposed hypothesis. The study collected data from several published research from different countries. The researchers used 32 studies from eight countries (individualistic and collectivist countries). The researcher's inclusion criteria for studies that would be used were:
The strange situation was a procedure that Ainsworth designed to identify attachment styles between infants and caregivers. This is determined by how the infant responds to separation and reunion from their caregiver. In addition, to how the infant behaves when a stranger is present. The meta-analysis calculated the average percentage scores of each attachment style Ainsworth proposed in her Strange situation study. This was calculated for each of the countries Van Ijzendoorn, and Kroonenberg investigated. The results of the cross-cultural research showed that:
Based on the findings, the researchers could identify that differences in how children are raised can affect the type of attachment style that is developed. This suggests that it is important to consider cultural differences when researching attachment. For researchers to identify if results are generalisable to the entire population, cross-cultural research should be carried out. Despite cross-cultural differences in how children are raised, the secure attachment style remains the most common, suggesting that some universal principles may affect the type of attachment style that is developed. Cross-Cultural Research Strengths and WeaknessesLet's discuss cross-cultural research strengths and weaknesses. Strengths of Cross-Cultural ResearchCross-cultural research is important because it helps reduce the bias in the current psychology research. Some research may infer theories as universal. This can be supported if cross-cultural research establishes similar results across cultures. This is important because it allows researchers to identify if results are generalisable and if they can be applied to understand the population rather than a sub-group of the population. Through cross-cultural research, researchers can identify how much culture influences behaviour and mental illnesses. It allows researchers to determine if tools used to measure things such as mental illnesses or systems created for diagnosing mental illnesses are acceptable to use in other countries. If this is not the case, then the systems being used may need to be revised. Problems with Cross-Cultural ResearchThe problems with cross-cultural research include that cross-cultural research is sensitive. If the researcher uses 20 American studies and three studies from China, the results are more likely to reflect the American population than the Chinese population. Therefore, the cross-cultural research will not provide generalisable results. It needs to use people from different cultures to be considered generalisable equally. In addition, if the researcher chooses a cross-cultural methodology that requires them to collect data independently, this can be costly and time-consuming. As some cross-cultural research methodologies rely on secondary data (findings from previously published studies), the validity and findings from these studies can affect cross-cultural research results. It can be a difficult process to carry out. For instance, tools may not be readily available in other countries, or there may be language barriers. Additionally, researchers require a large sample to find meaningful results, which can be tricky. Results may be misinterpreted due to the above issues and suffer from being ethnocentric. Smith and Bond (1988) highlighted issues using similar methodologies across cultures. They argued one culture may find a specific tool, reference, or way of behaving familiar and acceptable, whilst another may not have come across it before, so using the same methodology to increase reliability and validity may cause issues with validity. Cross-Cultural Research - Key takeaways
Which of the following is true of crossIn the context of psychology, which of the following is true of cross-cultural research? Traditionally, it incorporated knowledge contrasting human cultures versus nonhuman animal cultures. It studies people of differing cultural backgrounds and allows us to compare our findings across those cultures.
What is crossIntroduction. Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and differences in behavior among individuals who have developed in different cultures. The search for relationships between cultural context and human behavior is carried out within three general frames of reference.
What are the benefits of crossThe main purpose of cross-cultural research in psychology and education is the elaboration of general and specific objectives to the cultures involved without distorting an articulate common goal.
What is the importance of crossCross-cultural psychology can contribute new knowledge and understanding of the beliefs and practices that participants bring to these encounters and, in so doing, can enrich our resources for successfully meeting the universal challenges of education and health.
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