Continuing Education ActivityAcute compartment syndrome is a condition in which there is increased pressure within a closed osteofascial compartment, resulting in impaired local circulation. Without prompt treatment, acute compartment syndrome can lead to ischemia and eventually, necrosis. This activity reviews the evaluation and management of acute compartment syndrome and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in caring for patients with this condition. Show
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Access free multiple choice questions on this topic. IntroductionAcute compartment syndrome occurs when there is increased pressure within a closed osteofascial compartment, resulting in impaired local circulation. Acute compartment syndrome is considered a surgical emergency since, without proper treatment, it can lead to ischemia and eventually necrosis. Generally, acute compartment syndrome is considered a clinical diagnosis. However, intracompartmental pressure (ICP) > 30 mmHg can be used as a threshold to aid in diagnosis. However, a single normal ICP reading does not exclude acute compartment syndrome. Fascia is a thin, inelastic sheet of connective tissue that surrounds muscle compartments and limits the capacity for rapid expansion. In the leg, there are four muscle compartments: anterior, lateral, deep posterior, and superficial posterior. The anterior compartment of the leg is the most common location for compartment syndrome. This compartment contains the extensor muscles of the toes, the tibialis anterior muscle, the deep peroneal nerve, and the tibial artery. Other locations in which acute compartment syndrome is seen include the forearm, thigh, buttock, shoulder, hand, and foot. It can also be seen in the abdomen, but more commonly, it presents in the limbs. [1][2][3][4][5] Significant attention should be paid to patients with open fractures. Recent retrospective studies indicate that skin laceration would not relieve the pressure inside the muscle compartments. Therefore, acute compartment syndrome is still predictable. This is especially pertinent for open Gustilo type 2 and 3 lesions in proximal intra-articular tibia fractures.[6] EtiologyAcute compartment syndrome can occur with any condition that restricts the intracompartmental space or increases the fluid volume in the intracompartmental space. Acute compartment syndrome can occur without any precipitating trauma but typically occurs after a long bone fracture, with tibial fractures being the most common cause of the condition, followed by distal radius fractures. Seventy-five percent of cases of acute compartment syndrome are associated with fractures. After fractures, the most common cause of acute compartment syndrome is soft tissue injuries. Other causes of acute compartment syndrome include burns, vascular injuries, crush injuries, drug overdoses, reperfusion injuries, thrombosis, bleeding disorders, infections, improperly placed casts or splints, tight circumferential bandages, penetrating trauma, intense athletic activity, and poor positioning during surgery. In children, supracondylar fractures of the humerus and both ulnar and radial forearm fractures are associated with compartment syndrome. [7][8][9][10][5][11] EpidemiologyThe incidence of acute compartment syndrome is estimated to be 7.3 per 100,000 in males and 0.7 per 100,000 in females, with the majority of cases occurring after trauma. Tibial shaft fracture is the most common cause of acute compartment syndrome, is associated with a 1 to 10 percent incidence of acute compartment syndrome. Acute compartment syndrome occurs more commonly in males younger than 35, which may be due to a larger relative intracompartmental muscle mass and increased likelihood of being involved in high-energy trauma. Patients with bleeding diathesis, such as hemophilia, are at greater risk for acute compartment syndrome. Cases of acute compartment syndrome have been reported without acute precipitating trauma in pediatric leukemia. [4][5][12][13][11][14] Patients who develop acute compartment syndrome without any fracture are at a higher risk of developing complications and delayed treatment.[15] PathophysiologyAcute compartment syndrome occurs due to decreased intracompartmental space or increased intracompartmental fluid volume because the surrounding fascia is inherently non-compliant. As the compartment pressure increases, hemodynamics are impaired. There is normally an equilibrium between venous outflow and arterial inflow. When there is an increase in compartmental pressure, there is a reduction in venous outflow. This causes venous pressure and, thus, venous capillary pressure to increase. If the intracompartmental pressure becomes higher than arterial pressure, a decrease in arterial inflow will also occur. The reduction of venous outflow and arterial inflow result in decreased oxygenation of tissues causing ischemia. If the deficit of oxygenation becomes high enough, irreversible necrosis may occur. The normal pressure within a compartment is less than 10 mmHg. If the intracompartmental pressure reaches 30 mmHg or greater, acute compartment syndrome is present. However, a single normal ICP reading does not exclude acute compartment syndrome. ICP should be monitored serially or continuously. [16][17][18] History and PhysicalAcute compartment syndrome typically occurs within a few hours of inciting trauma. However, it can present up to 48 hours after. The earliest objective physical finding is the tense, or ''wood-like" feeling of the involved compartment. Pain is typically severe, out of proportion to the injury. Early on, pain may only be present with passive stretching. However, this symptom may be absent in advanced acute compartment syndrome. In the initial stages, pain may be characterized as a burning sensation or as a deep ache of the involved compartment. Paresthesia, hypoesthesia, or poorly localized deep muscular pain may also be present. Classically, the presentation of acute compartment syndrome has been remembered by "The Five P's": pain, pulselessness, paresthesia, paralysis, and pallor. However, aside from paresthesia, which may occur earlier in the course of the condition, these are typically late findings. Beware that the presence or absence of a palpable arterial pulse may not accurately indicate relative tissue pressure or predict the risk for compartment syndrome. In some patients, a pulse is still present, even in a severely compromised extremity. Physical exam should focus on the neurovascular territory of the involved compartment:
Although the clinical features discussed above can help identify compartment syndrome, they have limited sensitivity and specificity. Other factors, such as compartment pressures, can help make the diagnosis.[19][20] Due to the potential for rapid progression of compartment syndrome, clinicians should perform serial exams. EvaluationAcute compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis and needs prompt treatment. However, the following are done to evaluate further and to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment / ManagementAcute compartment syndrome is an emergency condition. Less time should be spent on confirmation of the diagnosis, as delayed treatment may result in loss of limb.[26]
For patients who do not meet diagnostic criteria for acute compartment syndrome but who are at high risk based on history and physical exam findings, or for patients with intracompartmental pressures between 15 to 20 mmHg, serial intracompartmental pressure measurements are recommended. Patients with ICPs between 20-30 mmHg should be admitted and the surgical team should be consulted. For patients with intracompartmental pressures greater than 30 mmHg or delta pressures less than 30 mmHg, surgical fasciotomy should be done. Acute compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency, so prompt diagnosis and treatment are critical. Once the diagnosis is confirmed, immediate surgical fasciotomy is needed to reduce the intracompartmental pressure. The ideal timeframe for fasciotomy is within six hours of injury, and fasciotomy is not recommended after 36 hours following injury. When tissue pressure remains elevated for that amount of time, irreversible damage may occur, and fasciotomy may not be beneficial in this situation. If necrosis occurs before fasciotomy is performed, there is a high likelihood of infection which may require amputation. If infection occurs, debridement is necessary to prevent systemic spread or other complications. After a fasciotomy is performed and swelling dissipates, a skin graft is commonly used for incision closure. Patients must be closely monitored for complications which include infection, acute renal failure, and rhabdomyolysis. [2][1][27] Differential Diagnosis
Pertinent Studies and Ongoing TrialsThere are ongoing clinical trials on the treatment of compartment syndrome with ultrafiltration. The study consists of patients with tibial shaft fractures that need surgical correction and are at risk of developing compartment syndrome. It involves the insertion of ultrafiltration catheters in the tissue of the muscle compartment to monitor the biochemical environment inside the tissues of the compartment. The trial also studies that the repetitive insertion of the catheters is safe and does not increase the intercompartmental pressure. The study is being done by the national institute of arthritis and musculoskeletal and skin diseases (NIAMS). Previous studies on ultrafiltration as a treatment modality for compartment syndrome have been done but further research on this approach is warranted.[28] PrognosisThe prognosis after treatment of compartment syndrome depends mainly on how quickly the condition is diagnosed and treated. When fasciotomy is done within 6 hours, there is almost 100% recovery of limb function. After 6 hours, there may be residual nerve damage. Data show that when the fasciotomy is done within 12 hours, only two-thirds of patients have normal limb function. In very delayed cases, the limb may require an amputation. Outcomes for the posterior compartment syndrome of the leg are worse than outcomes for the anterior compartment of the leg since it is difficult to perform inadequate decompression of the posterior compartment. Long-term studies on survivors do reveal residual pain, Volkmann's contracture, mild neurological deficits, and marked cosmetic defects in the affected extremity. Recurrent compartment syndrome has been known to occur in athletes due to scarring. There are some individuals who may die from acute compartment syndrome. Often these cases are caused by infection, which ultimately leads to sepsis and multiorgan failure. [29][5][30][31] ComplicationsThe following are the complications of compartment syndrome:
Postoperative and Rehabilitation Care
ConsultationsManagement of acute compartment syndrome involves a multidisciplinary approach. Initially, the patient is attended to by a general or orthopedic surgeon. Depending on the complications, the following may be consulted in the management of patients with acute compartment syndrome:
Deterrence and Patient EducationPatients should be educated to seek care after a traumatic injury or if they develop pain or swelling of an extremity. If a fasciotomy is performed, adequate wound care is of utmost importance. Pearls and Other IssuesWhen applying plaster casts, especially following reduction, uni-valving or bi-valving can help to reduce the pressure by about 50%. Beware that once the initial swelling dissipates, the cast can become excessively loose, which can decrease the amount of reduction accomplished. Enhancing Healthcare Team OutcomesThe management of acute compartment syndrome requires a well-integrated interprofessional team of healthcare professionals including nurses, laboratory technologists, pharmacists, and multiple physicians in different specialties. Without proper management, acute compartment syndrome can lead to high morbidity and poor outcomes.
After surgery, an interprofessional team that provides a holistic approach can help achieve the best possible outcomes for patients. This may include the surgery or orthopedics team, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, pharmacists, and social workers. Due to the complexity of care required, the best outcomes will be achieved by the use of an interprofessional team.[35][36] Review QuestionsFigureAcute Compartment Syndrome Fasciotomy secondary to compartment syndrome of the deep leg compartment. Contributed by Mark A. Dreyer, DPM, FACFAS References1.Osier C, Smith C, Stinner D, Rivera J, Possley D, Finnan R, Bode K, Stockinger Z. Orthopedic Trauma: Extremity Fractures. Mil Med. 2018 Sep 01;183(suppl_2):105-107. [PubMed: 30189079] 2.Gordon WT, Talbot M, Shero JC, Osier CJ, Johnson AE, Balsamo LH, Stockinger ZT. Acute Extremity Compartment Syndrome and the Role of Fasciotomy in Extremity War Wounds. Mil Med. 2018 Sep 01;183(suppl_2):108-111. 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Clinical and radiographic predictors of acute compartment syndrome in the treatment of tibial shaft fractures: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2020 Jan 13;21(1):25. [PMC free article: PMC6958679] [PubMed: 31931775] 15.Hope MJ, McQueen MM. Acute compartment syndrome in the absence of fracture. J Orthop Trauma. 2004 Apr;18(4):220-4. [PubMed: 15087965] 16.Smith-Singares E, Boachie JA, Iglesias IM, Jaffe L, Goldkind A, Jeng EI. Fusobacterium emphysematous pyomyositis with necrotizing fasciitis of the leg presenting as compartment syndrome: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2017 Nov 28;11(1):332. [PMC free article: PMC5704428] [PubMed: 29179775] 17.Thabet AM, Simson JE, Gerzina C, Dabash S, Adler A, Abdelgawad AA. The impact of acute compartment syndrome on the outcome of tibia plateau fracture. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2018 Jan;28(1):85-93. [PubMed: 28785833] 18.Dunphy L, Morhij R, Tucker S. Rhabdomyolysis-induced compartment syndrome secondary to atorvastatin and strenuous exercise. BMJ Case Rep. 2017 Mar 16;2017 [PMC free article: PMC5372158] [PubMed: 28302660] 19.Santistevan JR. Acute Limb Ischemia: An Emergency Medicine Approach. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017 Nov;35(4):889-909. [PubMed: 28987435] 20.Broadhurst PK, Robinson LR. Compartment syndrome: Neuromuscular complications and electrodiagnosis. Muscle Nerve. 2020 Sep;62(3):300-308. [PubMed: 31944307] 21.Rademacher E, Miller PE, Jordan E, May CJ, Glotzbecker MP, Bae DS, Hedequist DJ, Shore BJ. Management of Fasciotomy Incisions After Acute Compartment Syndrome: Is Delayed Primary Closure More Feasible in Children Compared With Adults? J Pediatr Orthop. 2020 Apr;40(4):e300-e305. [PubMed: 31876698] 22.Cone J, Inaba K. Lower extremity compartment syndrome. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2017;2(1):e000094. [PMC free article: PMC5877908] [PubMed: 29766095] 23.Mansfield CJ, Bleacher J, Tadak P, Briggs MS. Differential examination, diagnosis and management for tingling in toes: fellow's case problem. J Man Manip Ther. 2017 Dec;25(5):294-299. [PMC free article: PMC5810784] [PubMed: 29449772] 24.Bloch A, Tomaschett C, Jakob SM, Schwinghammer A, Schmid T. Compression sonography for non-invasive measurement of lower leg compartment pressure in an animal model. Injury. 2018 Mar;49(3):532-537. [PubMed: 29195681] 25.Mortensen SJ, Vora MM, Mohamadi A, Wright CL, Hanna P, Lechtig A, Egan J, Williamson PM, Wixted JJ, Rutkove SB, Nazarian A. Diagnostic Modalities for Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Extremities: A Systematic Review. JAMA Surg. 2019 Jul 01;154(7):655-665. [PubMed: 31042278] 26.Osborn CPM, Schmidt AH. Management of Acute Compartment Syndrome. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2020 Feb 01;28(3):e108-e114. [PubMed: 31977609] 27.Wesslén C, Wahlgren CM. Contemporary Management and Outcome After Lower Extremity Fasciotomy in Non-Trauma-Related Vascular Surgery. Vasc Endovascular Surg. 2018 Oct;52(7):493-497. [PubMed: 29716475] 28.Odland RM, Schmidt AH. Compartment syndrome ultrafiltration catheters: report of a clinical pilot study of a novel method for managing patients at risk of compartment syndrome. J Orthop Trauma. 2011 Jun;25(6):358-65. [PubMed: 21577072] 29.McQueen MM, Duckworth AD. The diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome: a review. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2014 Oct;40(5):521-8. [PubMed: 26814506] 30.Tam JPH, Gibson AGF, Murray JRD, Hassaballa M. Fasciotomy for chronic exertional compartment syndrome of the leg: clinical outcome in a large retrospective cohort. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2019 Feb;29(2):479-485. [PubMed: 30145669] 31.Maher JM, Brook EM, Chiodo C, Smith J, Bluman EM, Matzkin EG. Patient-Reported Outcomes Following Fasciotomy for Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome. Foot Ankle Spec. 2018 Oct;11(5):471-477. [PubMed: 29931999] 32.Fouasson-Chailloux A, Menu P, Dauty M. Evaluation of Strength Recovery after Traumatic Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Thigh. A Case Study. Ortop Traumatol Rehabil. 2017 Aug 31;19(4):379-382. [PubMed: 29086744] 33.Meulekamp MZ, Sauter W, Buitenhuis M, Mert A, van der Wurff P. Short-Term Results of a Rehabilitation Program for Service Members With Lower Leg Pain and the Evaluation of Patient Characteristics. Mil Med. 2016 Sep;181(9):1081-7. [PubMed: 27612357] 34.Campano D, Robaina JA, Kusnezov N, Dunn JC, Waterman BR. Surgical Management for Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the Leg: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Arthroscopy. 2016 Jul;32(7):1478-86. [PubMed: 27020462] 35.Glass GE, Staruch RM, Simmons J, Lawton G, Nanchahal J, Jain A, Hettiaratchy SP. Managing missed lower extremity compartment syndrome in the physiologically stable patient: A systematic review and lessons from a Level I trauma center. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016 Aug;81(2):380-7. [PubMed: 27192464] 36.Padar M, Reintam Blaser A, Talving P, Lipping E, Starkopf J. Abdominal Compartment Syndrome: Improving Outcomes With A Multidisciplinary Approach - A Narrative Review. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2019;12:1061-1074. [PMC free article: PMC6927564] [PubMed: 31908470] What clinical finding is indicative of compartment syndrome?Common symptoms observed in compartment syndrome include a feeling of tightness and swelling. Pain with certain movements, particularly passive stretching of the muscles, is the earliest clinical indicator of compartment syndrome.
What are the 5 signs of compartment syndrome?Common Signs and Symptoms: The "5 P's" are oftentimes associated with compartment syndrome: pain, pallor (pale skin tone), paresthesia (numbness feeling), pulselessness (faint pulse) and paralysis (weakness with movements). Numbness, tingling, or pain may be present in the entire lower leg and foot.
What are the 6 cardinal signs of compartment syndrome?The six P's include: (1) Pain, (2) Poikilothermia, (3) Paresthesia, (4) Paralysis, (5) Pulselessness, and (6) Pallor. The earliest indicator of developing ACS is severe pain.
What is the most common symptom of acute compartment syndrome?Acute compartment syndrome usually develops over a few hours after a serious injury to an arm or leg. Some symptoms of acute compartment syndrome include: A new and persistent deep ache in an arm or leg. Pain that seems greater than expected for the severity of the injury.
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