Show
Rulers Increased the Use of Bureaucratic Elite and Military Professionals to Strengthen Their StatesThe recruitment and use of the bureaucratic elite and the development of military professionals became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. Video: What is a Bureaucracy? Bureaucratic and Political Elite in the Land EmpiresBureaucratic governments were not new. Various civilizations had previously had large bureaucracies. However, as distant peoples increasingly interacted through trade and communication networks, effective and efficient governing bureaucracies became increasingly important. If governments could not efficiently collect tax revenue, provide defense, and build infrastructures like roads and ports, their societies were increasingly vulnerable to conquest or revolution.
Below are a few selected bureaucratic systems used by large societies during this historical period. Ming and Qing Dynasties in ChinaConfucian scholar-officialsBoth the Ming and Qing dynasties used China’s Confucian scholar class to run the governing bureaucracy. The use of these officials to run bureaucratic ministries was a continuity with previous periods in Chinese history before the Mongol Yuan dynasty who had prevented Confucian scholars from the highest levels of government. The Confucian imperial examination system that scholar-officials had to pass continued to be the main route to government service. This examination represents another connection to earlier periods in Chinese governance before the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Eunuchs in the Ming dynastyEunuchs (men who had their sex organs removed) had substantial power in the Ming dynasty. They were closest to the emperor and controlled which Confucian scholar-officials could see the emperor. Chinese mariner Zheng He was an imperial eunuch. The use of eunuchs allowed the emperor to limit the power of the Confucian scholar-officials, especially within the royal household. The Qing dynasty eliminated the influence of eunuchs in China’s royal family and governance. The Russian EmpireFollowing the kingdom of Moscow’s defeat of the Mongol Golden Horde Khanate, the kingdom’s leaders used their power to begin building a Russian Empire. Moscow’s rulers first conquered the nearby Russian kingdoms, and they then expanded out and conquered non-Russian peoples. Feudal aristocratic governanceThe Russian bureaucracy was small compared to China’s bureaucracy and those in Islamic dynasties. The ruling and elite classes were similar to those found in feudal Europe during the middle ages. They consisted of a feudal aristocracy (wealth through land ownership) that supported the Russian Czar. JapanIn 1600, Japan entered the Edo period under the Tokugawa family, who ruled Japan as a military dictatorship. The Japanese emperor was powerless and effectively under the control of the Tokugawa shoguns. The Tokugawa family’s power lasted until 1868 when a revolution led to their overthrow. Feudal governance in JapanThe Japanese government during this period was most similar to Russia. Feudal lords (daimyo) with their samurai armies supported the rule of the Tokugawa shoguns.
The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottomans established a sizeable bureaucratic government. Like the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Ottoman government contained many different ministries. The Ottoman Sultan ruled over the government, and he maintained absolute power. The empire was a theocracy, and Islam was the state religion.
Devshirme in the Ottoman empireTo limit the power of the Turkish nobility, the Ottoman Sultan used the devshirme system. The Ottomans required Christian areas in the Balkans (southeastern Europe) to provide Christian boys in this system. The boys were forcibly converted to Islam and trained for military or government service. Only Christians were allowed in the devshirme. Most of the highest-ranking members of a sultan’s government or military were former Christians trained through the devshirme system. This system produced most of the empire’s bureaucratic elites. The Mughal EmpireMughal emperors ruled over their empire with absolute authority. Mughal emperors were the head of state, the chief lawmaker, and commander of the armed forces, the writer of laws, and the highest legal authority. Like in all other land empires during this period, the monarch made the law. Mughal emperors also became the chief religious authority and resolved differences in opinions on Islamic law.
ZamindarsThe Mughals created an aristocratic class to support their rule. Known as zamindars, the Mughals required this noble class to maintain a military that the emperor could call upon to maintain peace or engage in battle.
Armies Modernized and Created a Class of Professional SoldiersFlourishing civilizations have long had successful militaries. The ability to expand territory and prevent others from invading into one’s territory relied on maintaining a strong military. Traditionally, armies consisted of non-professional (people who are generally not soldiers) soldiers. When conflict broke out, leaders would temporarily form military units. These temporary armies consisted of volunteers, mercenaries (people who fight for however pays), and those forced by rulers to fight. Often when the conflict was over, non-professional soldiers went back to their everyday lives. As new technologies such as gunpowder made warfare more complex, leaders increasingly relied on professional (trained and paid) soldiers. When conflicts ended, these professional soldiers remained in the military. These standing armies remained ready to fight in future battles.
The Ottoman JanissaryOne of the first modern standing armies in Europe and the Middle East was the Ottoman Janissary. Sultan Murad I (1326-1378) formed the first Janissary military unit. Ottoman leaders pulled Janissary soldiers from the devshirme system. Under the devshirme and Janissary systems, young Christian boys were taken from their families, converted to Islam, and raised with complete loyalty to the sultan. Janissary soldiers were an elite fighting force: Because they were legally considered slaves, Janissaries were the property of the Ottoman sultan. From a very young age, Janissary lived a strict and disciplined life where they trained for years to become engineers, artisans, riflemen, clerics, archers, and artillery shooters. They had access to the most up-to-date military technology. In the 1440s, when firearms weapons became available, the Janissary rapidly adopted and trained with them. By the 16th century, their weapons arsenal had increased to include grenades, cannons, and trench guns. Janissary soldiers were also one of the first modern militaries to wear uniforms, march to music, and live in military barracks (housing). The Janissary helped the Ottomans expand: Janissary soldiers were critical to the Ottomans’ early military success and expansion across the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern Europe. They helped the Ottoman capture Constantinople, which brought an end to the Byzantine Empire. Their skill was responsible for Ottoman expansion to Eastern Anatolia after the Ottoman victory in the Ottoman-Safavid Wars of the 16th century. Salaried Samurai in JapanThe samurai were a military class in Japan that began to form as early as the 8th and 9th centuries. Over time, the structure of the samurai changed. During the Kamakura shogunate (1192–1333), samurai were professional soldiers employed by nobles to protect their lands. Unlike the knights in middle ages Europe, samurai did not receive fiefs (land under their operation and control) for their service. For their loyalty, samurai instead received clothing, shelter, and food as payment.
The Streltsy in RussiaIn the 16th century, the Russian empire began to employ professional soldiers known as the Streltsy.
Over time, Streltsy weakened as a fighting force. Peter the Great abolished the corps in 1689 following a Streltsy revolt against the government. He then replaced them with the even more professional Russian Imperial Army in 1721. The Eight Banner System and Green Standard Army in ChinaThe Qing dynasty also maintained a professional standing army. Troops came from the Manchu Eight Banner system and the Han Chinese Green Standard Army that had surrendered after being defeated by Manchu forces. Following the Ming dynasty’s complete conquest, Qing emperors used the Banner and Green armies to expand the Qing Empire into Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet. Once Qing expansion ended, Chinese emperors used these armies to patrol China’s borders and keep peace in the newly conquered frontier regions. The Green Standard Army largely transitioned into a police force in China’s populated eastern areas and cities. Rulers Created New Ways to Increase Tax RevenueEmpires needed new and efficient systems to collect money to support the state. As the size of empires grew, additional tax revenue was necessary to support the increasing costs of war and the state. Rulers used taxes to pay for increasingly complex and expensive gun powder weapons and professional militaries. Tax collection took various forms, including the following. Mughal Zamindar Tax CollectionZamindars were a semiautonomous (able to act independently to a degree) ruling elite in the Mughal Empire. They functioned as the Mughal noble class. They controlled large pieces of land as well as all of the peasants within their territories. As long as they swore allegiance to the Mughal emperor, Mughal emperors allowed Zamindars near-complete control within their domains. One of their chief responsibilities was the collection of taxes. They were allowed to keep significant portions of tax revenue to enrich themselves and for use toward their territories’ administration. Zamindars would then send the remaining tax to the Mughal emperor. Ottoman Tax Farming--Not Actual Farming
Ottoman tax farming was the dominant system of tax collection in the Ottoman Empire.
Video: Ottoman Tax Farming Mexica (Aztec) Tribute ListsThe Aztecs collected tribute from conquered peoples—these tributes went to the Aztec emperor and his military allies. As long as defeated leaders agreed to supply a regular tribute, they could maintain power over their peoples and lands. Tribute goods provided to the emperor included animal products, food, copal incense, feathers, warrior costumes, and shields. In a conflict, the Aztec also required conquered peoples to supply the Aztec army with soldiers. Historical trend: Tribute was a common method to extract money from weaker societies. The Chinese tribute system and the Golden Horde Mongol’s tribute from the Russian kingdoms are also examples of tribute systems. Ming Practice of Collecting Taxes in Actual CurrencyFor most of history, people paid taxes to governments with goods or labor. However, in the second half of the 15th century, the Ming emperor began requiring that regional and local governments pay their taxes to the emperor in silver. This change resulted in extreme hardship on the poorest Chinese. Ultimately, it led to the downfall of the Ming dynasty. How the process worked
Rulers Continued to Use Religion, Art, and Architecture to Support Their RuleLeaders needed ways to keep people under their authority. Placing themselves at the center of religion was one tool rulers used to accomplish this task. They also used art and monumental architecture to inspire awe (a sense of amazement) in their subjects. Rulers Used Religion to Support Their RuleIn nearly all early civilizations, the rulers either controlled religion in their territories or claimed that God chose them to rule. Often leaders had dual roles as both political and religious leaders. Mexica practice of human sacrificeAztec emperors claimed to be God’s representative on earth. As a result, they were both political leaders and the highest religious leader in Aztec culture. Emperors believed political order resulted from pleasing the gods. The most important God to satisfy was the sun god Huitzilopochtli who was in a constant battle against darkness. Aztecs believed that human sacrifice could feed Huitzilopochtli and make him stronger in his cosmic struggle. Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortez arrived in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán in 1521. In his writings, he described how Aztec priests sliced open the sacrificial victims’ chests and threw their bodies down the steps of the Templo Mayor. Excavations of the Templo Mayor in Mexico City between 2015 and 2018 uncovered evidence of mass human sacrifice. Archeologists found skulls similar to those described by Cortez and other Spanish conquistadors stacked in racks. Other bones unearthed show possible evidence of cannibalism. The European divine right of kingsThe European divine right of kings was the belief that God gave earthly power to rulers, and therefore, God chose them to rule. European rulers used the idea of the divine right to justify their right to absolute power. Monarchs believed that limits on their power by earthly powers such as parliaments went against the wishes of God. Historical Comparison: The Chinese Mandate of Heaven from this and previous historical periods is also an appeal to religious legitimacy. The Songhai promotion of IslamThe Songhai empire contained numerous tribes with unique leadership and cultural systems. Under previous powers like Mali, leaders had difficulty uniting and keeping these various groups together. Islam as a tool to unite diverse peoples: Songhai’s leaders had hoped that Islam, which Mali’s leaders had earlier adopted, might serve as the glue to unite differing peoples under their leadership. King Mohammad I converted to Islam and went on the hajj (Islamic holy pilgrimage) to Mecca. During his journey, the ruler of Mecca anointed (to give a title) Mohammad I, the Islamic caliph (ruler) of West Africa. This title increased his political and religious legitimacy back home, making it more difficult for rivals to steal the throne.
Rulers Used Art and Monumental Architecture to Support Their RuleArt and architecture was also a powerful tool to promote leadership. Rulers used both to display the wealth and power of their dynasties. Rulers also used art and architecture as a visual tool to connect their authority to God and the divine. In a world where most people were poor, rulers’ art and architecture were often the most visible representations of power. Qing Imperial PortraitsQing imperial portraits allowed Qing emperors to connect their rule with the Chinese identity and culture visually. As foreign leaders of China, this was important to maintaining their legitimacy to rule. Artists often painted Qing rulers as Confucian scholars engaged in the study of Confucian classics. Other images showed emperors and imperial family members following important Confucian rituals like remaining filial (respectful) to elders and educating themselves by reading Confucian classics. Portraits of Emperor Qianlong depict him as the Bodhisattva (Buddhist teacher) Manjushri. Another image shows Emperor Yongzheng as a Daoist hermit who has withdrawn from society and lives alone in nature. Incan Sun Temple of CuzcoAlso known as Coricancha, the Inca sun temple functioned as the Incan empire’s religious and cultural center. The temple built for the Incan sun god Inti was at the center of four major highways that went to the empire’s four regions in the empire’s capital city. Its position at the intersection of these highways symbolized the Incan religion’s importance in tying together the culturally diverse empire. At the height of Inca power, the empire housed over 4,000 priests. Enormous quantities of gold enhanced the grandeur of the temple. Mughal Mausolea and MosquesThe Mughal dynasty contributed a grand architectural heritage to South Asia. Mughal architecture was a combination of Persian, Turkish, and Indian architectural styles. Mughal mausolea (burial places) and mosques (centers of Islamic religious practices) are some of India’s most recognizable buildings.
European PalacesEuropean palaces were some of the most remarkable examples of rulers using grand architecture to legitimize their rule. Palaces’ immense size and luxury across Europe symbolized European monarchies’ splendor, wealth, and strength. Versaille: The palace of Versaille outside of Paris, France, is one of Europe’s most impressive palace architecture examples. Louis XIV first turned it into a royal palace, and it became France’s primary royal residence from 1682 until 1789. Versailles contains over 23,000 rooms. The Apostolic Palace Rome: Located in Vatican City in the heart of the Italian city of Rome, it remains the current home of the Roman Catholic Pope. Construction of the current version of the palace began in 1589. As the Pope’s residence, it served both as a political and religious power center in Europe. The palace contains Saint Peters Basilica, which Catholics believe sits above the burial place of Saint Peter, one of Jesus’s apostles who spread the Christian message following his crucifixion. What methods did rulers use to legitimize and consolidate their power?Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule.
How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule?How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule? They appointed officials that were of their own descent, hired translators in order to negotiate with the locals, and attempted to assimilate the locals into their culture and religion.
How did rulers legitimize and consolidate power quizlet?Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate power in land-based empires. This included the use of tax-collection systems to generate revenue in order to forward state power and expansion. Tax Farmers (who were not government employees) were told to collect a certain amount of taxes from an area.
How did absolute rulers legitimize their power?Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture, to legitimize their rule. Examples of religious ideas: European notions of divine right.
|