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Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, Being13th EditionMichael R Solomon 449 solutions Myers' Psychology for AP2nd EditionDavid G Myers 900 solutions A theory that attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. tries to explain the whole person. At the outset, it's important to stress that no single theory can adequately explain all the aspects of human personality. Every personality theory has its unique There are many personality theories, but they can be roughly grouped under four basic perspectives: the psychoanalytic, humanistic, social cognitive, and trait perspectives. In a nutshell, here's what each perspective emphasizes: The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experience. The humanistic perspective represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of a person's unique potential. The social cognitive perspective emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal setting, and self-regulation. The trait perspective emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among individuals. Inadequacy of Evidence - Freud's theory relies wholly on data derived from his relatively small number of patients and from self-analysis. Most of Freud's patients were relatively well-to-do, well-educated members of the middle and
upper classes in Vienna at the beginning of the twentieth century. Any way you look at it, this is a small and rather skewed sample from which to draw sweeping generalizations about human nature. Lack of Testability - Many psychoanalytic concepts are so vague and ambiguous that they are impossible to objectively measure or confirm Sexism - any people feel that Freud's theories reflect a sexist view of women. Because penis envy produces feelings of shame and inferiority, Freud (1925) claimed, women are more vain, masochistic, and jealous than men. He also believed that women are more influenced by their emotions and have a lesser ethical and moral sense than men. The influence of humanistic psychology has waned since the 1960s and early 1970s (Cain, 2003). Nevertheless, it has made lasting contributions, especially in the realms of psychotherapy, counseling, education, and parenting (Farber, 2007; Joseph & Murphy, 2013). And the importance of subjective experience and the self-concept has become widely accepted in different areas of psychology (Sheldon, 2008; Sleeth, 2007). First, humanistic theories are hard to validate or test scientifically. For example, concepts like the self-concept, unconditional positive regard, and the actualizing tendency are very difficult to define or measure objectively. Second, many psychologists believe that humanistic psychology's view of human nature is too optimistic (Bohart, 2013). For example, if self-actualization is a universal human motive, why are self-actualized people so hard to find? And, critics claim, humanistic psychologists have minimized the darker, more destructive side of human nature. Can we really account for all the evil in the world by attributing it to a restrictive upbringing or society? we learn many behaviors by observing, and then imitating, the behavior of other people. But, as Bandura (1997) has pointed out, we don't merely observe people's actions. We also observe the consequences that follow people's actions, the rules and standards that apply to behavior in specific situations, and the ways in which people regulate their own behavior. Thus, environmental influences are important, but conscious, self-generated goals and standards also exert considerable control over thoughts, feelings, and actions (Bandura, 2001). In the typical laboratory study, the relationships among a limited number of very specific variables are studied. In everyday life, situations are far more complex, with multiple factors converging to affect behavior and personality. Thus, an argument can be made that clinical data, rather than laboratory data, may be more reflective of human personality. The social cognitive perspective also ignores unconscious influences, emotions, and conflicts. Thus, it seems to lack the richness of psychoanalytic and humanistic theories, which strive to explain the whole person, including the unconscious, irrational, and emotional aspects of personality (McAdams & Pals, 2006; Westen, 1990). Comparing the psychoanalytic, humanistic, and social cognitive approaches to personality provides very different views of human nature Factor 1: Neuroticism Low: Calm, Even-tempered, unemotional, Hardy High: Worrying, Temperamental, emotional, Vulnerable Factor
2: low: Reserved, Loner Factor 3: Openness to Experience low: Down-to-earth, Conventional, uncreative, Prefer routine high: Imaginative, Original, creative, Prefer variety Factor 5: Conscientiousness low: Lazy, Aimless, Quitting high: Hardworking, Ambitious, Persevering Which approach to personality emphasizes the importance of observation and learning?The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
What approach to personality emphasizes the importance of observational learning and imitation of models?Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.
What does the social cognitive approach emphasize?Social cognitive theory emphasizes the learning that occurs within a social context. In this view, people are active agents who can both influence and are influenced by their environment.
Which perspective on personality emphasizes the importance?Humanistic Perspective
Carl Rogers: Believed in the inherent goodness of people and emphasized the importance of free will and psychological growth. He suggested that the actualizing tendency is the driving force behind human behavior. 4. Abraham Maslow: Suggested that people are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.
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Which approach to personality emphasizes the importance of observation and learning quizlet?
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