IntroductionsIntroductions should secure audience attention and interest, orient listeners to the plan and content of the speech and set expectations. Show
Do:
Don't:
ConclusionsConclusions should reinforce the message and give the speech unity and closure. Do:
Don't:
Module VIII: Public SpeakingAfter completing this section, students should be able to:
IntroductionsRegardless of how well developed the body of the speechSee Module VIII, Section 5. is, the speaker has to be able to grab and keep the audience's interest. The speaker gets them to want to listen. How well a speaker starts and ends the speech will significantly affect how the audience attends to the message and remembers the message. The Primacy-Recency EffectA phenomenon called the primacy-recency effect is a theory that argues we are most struck by and retain as most memorable the first and last things we experience about a situation, person, or event. Primacy refers to the first things we experience. We know first impressions are powerful and long lasting. They are our primary experiences with others, and set an overall tone for what to expect from this person in later interactions. Since we are so strongly driven to make sense of the world around us, once we make an initial assessment of what a person is like, it is very hard to change those initial perceptions. In public speaking, the introduction is the primary, initial encounter with the speaker. The audience quickly forms powerful first impressions of the speaker and the speech itself. We know from our understanding of
perceptionSee Module II, Section 2. that if our initial impression of something is positive, we then expect the subsequent experiences to likewise be positive. So if the introduction is strong, establishing a positive initial impression, the audience will assume the rest of the speech will be good. Since we are driven to find evidence affirming our
expectations, the audience will tend to focus on the positive, minimizing the negative. The reverse is also true; if the beginning of the speech is poor, we then expect a poor speech, and we tend to highlight the speaker’s mistakes to prove our assumption to be true. The recency-effect also addresses conclusions. The conclusion is the last impression, and is often the lasting impression the audience has of the speech. By ending on a powerful note, the audience is more likely to take away an overall positive impression of the experience. Introductions and conclusions are very important parts of the speech. Unfortunately, they tend to get far too little attention, being left to be quickly tossed together at the end of the speech development process. Instead, time needs to be spent on creating and practicing high quality introductions and conclusions. The Purposes of the IntroductionIntroductions have five purposes. In the initial 10% of the speech, the speaker wants to make sure they establish the best possible conditions for the reception of the body of the speech. 1. To Get Attention: At the beginning of the introduction, the speaker needs to verbally grab the audience so they are ready to attend to the message. We need to move the audience from not paying attention to focusing on us. Attention getting devices are tools we use to accomplish this, and they will be addressed later in this section. 2. To Prepare the Audience for the Thesis Since the audience likely does not know what exactly the speaker will be addressing, the introduction can serve to start broadly and funnel the audience's thinking toward the specific thesis. This would also include providing the audience with any relevant background information to get them "up to speed," so to speak. For example, if the speaker is addressing drinking and driving, they might reference any recent alcohol related crashes in the area to aim the audience's thinking a specific direction. For informative speaking, since we want to start at the audience's existing knowledge and move them forward, the speaker may remind the audience of what they already know to prepare them to move forward. For example, "You already know the internet is just a large web of interconnected computers. But do you know where this all came from?" 3. To Establish Relevance For an audience to really attend to the speech, the speaker needs to show the audience how the topic is relevant to them, their lives, or their concerns. The speaker needs to connect the topic to the audience in some manner. For example, "As college students, the web is a crucial communication tool. We use it to research assignments, for entertainment, and to connect with our friends. Since it is such a core part of our lives, it makes sense we have a better idea of where it all came from." 4. To Set Expectations for the Speech and Speaker The introduction is the first moment in which the audience begins to establish expectations for the presentation. Two areas of focus are tone and speaker credibility . The introduction establishes the overall emotional tone for the presentation. If the speech is serious, the introduction needs to establish the need for seriousness; if the speech is lighthearted, the introduction needs to establish a humorous tone. It is very important the tone of the introduction is consistent with the rest of the speech. According to perception theorySee Module II, Section 2., the power of expectations causes us to focus on expected stimuli; when a speaker begins in a humorous tone, the audience will be looking for things to laugh at. When beginning in a very serious tone, the audience will expect a serious presentation throughout and may miss any attempts at humor.
The audience will also establish expectations for the speaker and develop a sense of the speaker’s credibility. A strong beginning typically establishes positive expectations and high credibility, and a weak beginning has just the opposite effect. Consider the first day of class in a semester. Students go to a class, the instructor walks in, and in a manner of moments the students will make a series of assumptions as to the nature of that class. Because of perceptual influences, we know first impressions are difficult to change. Good speakers want to begin their speech with a sense of confidence, preparation, and audience-centeredness to establish positive expectations for the speech. A concept that comes into play with speaker credibility is grace. In religion , grace refers to a forgiveness of sins. In public speaking, grace refers to the audience’s ability to overlook minor mistakes the speaker makes. Again, due to how we know perception works, if a speaker begins a speech in a strong, confident manner, the audience assumes the speech will be strong and minor errors get overlooked. However, if the speaker starts weakly, giving the impression they are not prepared, the audience expects a poor speech and will look for evidence fulfilling the expectation. Each mistake, even minor, is noticed as it proves the audience’s expectations were correct. Speakers want to start off establishing positive expectations to receive grace from the audience. 5. To Give the Thesis/Preview At the end of the of the introduction, the speaker gives their thesis and preview, telling the audience specifically what the speech is about and how the speaker will approach the topic. As addressed elsewhere, a good thesis is concise, simple, and direct, and a good preview is brief and clear. At this point, the thesis/preview is not only telling the audience the specific purpose of the speech, it is also serving as a transition into the body of the speech. Caution A common mistake novice speakers make in fulfilling the five purposes is to think of them as five sentences which is a completely erroneous approach. Whether the introduction is 30 seconds long or 10 minutes long, the functions need to be met, regardless of how many sentences it takes. Furthermore, except for the thesis/preview, the functions do not have to be handled separately. The attention getting part of the speech can certainly aid in preparing the audience for the thesis, establishing relevance, and setting the tone for the speech. The speaker needs to consider these in combinations, not singularly.Attention-Getting DevicesTo get the audience's attention, we use attention getting devices. Attention getting devices, or AGDs, are techniques speakers use to grab the audience's focus and get the audience intrigued by what is coming up. They aim to get the audience to want to listen. There are a variety of attention getting devices, and they can be used singularly or in combination. Questions The speaker can use either responsive questions or rhetorical questions to gain the audience's attention. Responsive questions ask for an actual response from the audience. A "show of hands" is most commonly asked, but with smaller audiences could include verbal comments. Response questions can be extremely effective as they require the audience to become involved immediately, reducing the likelihood of them acting more passively. Important guidelines for asking a responsive question are:
Rhetorical questions do not call for a specific response. They are asked to trigger the audience to think in a manner consistent with the focus of the speech. A good rhetorical question takes time and careful thought to develop. They can be deceptively simple. For example, if a speaker is going to argue against drinking and driving, to ask, "How many of you have heard of drinking and driving?" is not a good rhetorical question; it is too simplistic and obvious. Something like, "How many of you realize getting killed by a drunk driver is the most common form of death on a late Saturday night?" is more thought provoking and directed. Narratives The speaker tells a story or gives an example related to the topic. These can be very effective in that audiences tend to relate much better to stories about real people; such stories create a much greater sense of empathy and identification. For example, Jason might start his speech about pediatric nursing with a story from his sibling's experience with cancer. Emma could begin her speech about organic farming with the story of her family's work shifting from conventional to organic methods. If using a narrative, deliver it in a manner which "tells the story." Use vocal variety to aid the audience in imagining the seriousness or the humor of the situation. Giving a narrative in a flat, monotone style negates the impact of the story. Quotations The speaker can begin the speech by quoting another person. The quotation selected should be used because of its intriguing or insightful nature. As with testimony as evidence, the speaker can use lay, prestige, or expert quotations, and should always make sure the source is cited. Some things to consider when using quotations:
Startling Statements or Statistics The speaker begins the speech with a statement that, for some reason, takes the audience aback and makes them want to hear more. Whether a statement or a statistic, it should be something that triggers interest and curiosity. However, it should not be shocking. Swearing, yelling, telling off-color jokes, or other over-the-top comments should be avoided so as to not create a barrier between the audience and speaker. A classic example of this approach goes as follows: "Last year in the Sudan, over 10,000 people die every month from starvation. That's a very shocking number. Even more shocking is that you don't give a shit. What's more, you were more shocked when I said shit than you were when I told you 10,000 people were dying every month." While it does use a mild expletive, the impact of the attention-getter is quite strong.
Depending on the audience, such a startling statement and statistic could be quite effective, while other audiences may be too repulsed by the use of "shit." As with everything, appropriateness is all based on the audience. Humor
An old adage says, "Always start a speech with a joke." This is absolutely wrong. Starting a serious speech on child abuse with a joke would be offensive, not engaging. However, if appropriate for the topic and audience, humor is fine, if the speaker is adequately prepared for what may happen. Specifically, the speaker needs to:
Reference to Audience/Occasion The speaker can begin the speech by making a reference directed at the makeup, interests, or unique characteristics of the audience, or by making a reference to the event at which the audience is in attendance. For example, if giving a speech to college students on financial aid, a speaker may start by referring to the perpetual need for college students to find more money. When opening a commencement address, speakers often refer to the honor of being selected to speak at such an important occasion. Building RelevanceThe audience needs to have a sense of how or why the topic is relevant to them. In the introduction, the speaker should work to build a connection between the topic and the audience’s needs or concerns. Relevance building has three pathways:
Building Speaker Credibility
As mentioned previously, during the introduction, the audience is developing a perception of the competence and credibility of the speaker. It is very important to understand the speaker’s credibility is something the audience gives the speaker. Credibility is the audience’s perception of the speaker’s competence and believability. The speaker needs to offer evidence to the audience the speaker is prepared, confident, and believable. Some ways to influence the audience’s perception include:
ConclusionsWhile the introduction establishes the overall tone and expectations for the speech, the conclusion provides the audience the lasting impression. The conclusion is about half the length of the introduction, with two primary purposes: to summarize, and to provide closure. First, the conclusion offers a summary of the speech. In the introduction, the speaker previewed the points right after the thesis in a short, concise manner. Here, the speaker should review the main points, albeit in a slightly more involved manner than the preview. Remind the audience of the key points, but do not over-summarize. Generally, touch on what the main points were and, for a longer speech, some of the major sub-points. However, do not get so detailed that it sounds as if the conclusion is repeating the body of the speech. Do not make any new points in the conclusion. Gently remind the audience of what the speech addressed.
The second purpose of the conclusion is to provide closure which is more than simply ending the speech. Providing closure is to end the speech on a powerful note which gives the audience a feeling the speech is finished, and is finished appropriately and comfortably. Without the sense of closure, the audience feels the speech ended abruptly, as if it was cut off, without a sense of finality. Given how important the ending
of the speech is, a good speaker will take time to plan the last few lines to make sure they provide closure. Most of us have had the uncomfortable experience of reaching the end of a speech and realizing we do not have a good, final line. Some basic preparation can avoid such an awkward situation.
Key ConceptsThe terms and concepts students should be familiar with from this section include:
Attention Getting Devices
Building Relevance
Building Speaker Credibility Conclusions
What are the main purposes of the introduction?Your introduction conveys a lot of information to your readers. You can let them know what your topic is, why it is important, and how you plan to proceed with your discussion. In most academic disciplines, your introduction should contain a thesis that will assert your main argument.
Why is it so important for a speaker to use the introduction to establish the relevance of the topic to the audience?An introduction is important because it forces the speaker to be mindfully aware of explaining the topic of the speech to the audience. If the speaker doesn't know what her, his, or their topic is and cannot convey that topic to the audience, then we've got really big problems!
What are the 3 main purposes of the speaker?There are three general purposes that all speeches fall into: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
Why is it important to prepare the introduction and the conclusion of the speech as carefully as it is to prepare the body of the speech?Introductions and conclusions serve to frame the speech and give it a clearly defined beginning and end. They help the audience to see what is to come in the speech, and then let them mentally prepare for the end.
|