Anxiety disorders are common in virtually all cultures; however, accurately diagnosing them can be challenging. This chapter briefly describes each of the anxiety disorders categorized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and available diagnostic interviewing tools. The advantages and weaknesses of various interviewing and assessment strategies for anxiety disorders are discussed. Issues related to diversity, differential diagnosis, and other noteworthy diagnostic considerations are described to provide context for attending to individual differences and evaluating complex presentations. We also make recommendations for best practices when evaluating anxiety disorders.
Keywords
- Anxiety
- Fear
- Worry
- Interviewing
- Assessment
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Buying options
Chapter
EUR 29.95
Price includes VAT (Korea(Rep.))- DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9127-3_6
- Chapter length: 25 pages
- Instant PDF download
- Readable on all devices
- Own it forever
- Exclusive offer for individuals only
- Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
eBookEUR 128.39Price includes VAT (Korea(Rep.))
- ISBN: 978-1-4939-9127-3
- Instant PDF download
- Readable on all devices
- Own it forever
- Exclusive offer for individuals only
- Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
Hardcover BookEUR 159.99Price excludes VAT (Korea(Rep.))
- ISBN: 978-1-4939-9126-6
- Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
- Exclusive offer for individuals only
- Free shipping worldwide
Shipping restrictions may apply, check to see if you are impacted. - Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
Learn about institutional subscriptions
Fig. 6.1
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publications. CrossRef Google Scholar American Psychiatric Association. (2014). Desk reference to the diagnostic criteria from DSM-5. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publications. Google Scholar American Psychological Association. (2014). Guidelines for psychological practice with older adults. American Psychologist, 69(1), 34–65. CrossRef Google Scholar Asnaani, A., Richey, J. A., Dimaite, R., Hinton, D. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2010). A cross-ethnic comparison of lifetime prevalence rates of anxiety disorders. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(8), 551–555. CrossRef Google Scholar Asmundson, G. J., Taylor, S., & Smits, J. (2014). Panic disorder and agoraphobia: An overview and commentary on DSM-5 changes. Depression and Anxiety, 31(6), 480–486. CrossRef Google Scholar Barlow, D. H. (2004). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar Basco, M. R., Bostic, J. Q., Davies, D., Rush, A. J., Witte, B., Hendrickse, W., & Barnett, V. (2000). Methods to improve diagnostic accuracy in a community mental health setting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(10), 1599–1605. CrossRef Google Scholar Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 49–58. CrossRef Google Scholar Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897. CrossRef Google Scholar Bergman, R. L., Piacentini, J., & McCracken, J. T. (2002). Prevalence and description of selective mutism in a school-based sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(8), 938–946. CrossRef Google Scholar Bögels, S. M., & Zigterman, D. (2000). Dysfunctional cognitions in children with social phobia, separation anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 205–211. CrossRef Google Scholar Borkovec, T. D., & Ruscio, A. M. (2001). Psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(Suppl11), 37–42. Google Scholar Breslau, J., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Kendler, K. S., Su, M., Williams, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2006). Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine, 36(1), 57–68. CrossRef Google Scholar Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Schwab-Stone, M. (1996). Discrepancies among mother, child, and teacher reports: Examining the contributions of maternal depression and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(6), 749–765. CrossRef Google Scholar Brown, T. A., Barlow, D. H., & Di Nardo, P. A. (2014). Anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-5 (ADIS-5): Client interview schedule. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar Byers, A. L., Yaffe, K., Covinsky, K. E., Friedman, M. B., & Bruce, M. L. (2010). High occurrence of mood and anxiety disorders among older adults: The National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(5), 489–496. CrossRef Google Scholar Carleton, R. N., Norton, M. P. J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2007). Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(1), 105–117.References
CrossRef Google Scholar
Chambless, D. L., Caputo, G. C., Bright, P., & Gallagher, R. (1984). Assessment of fear of fear in agoraphobics: The body sensations questionnaire and the agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(6), 1090–1097.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Chapman, E. N., Kaatz, A., & Carnes, M. (2013). Physicians and implicit bias: How doctors may unwittingly perpetuate health care disparities. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(11), 1504–1510.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Chou, T., Asnaani, A., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012). Perception of racial discrimination and psychopathology across three US ethnic minority groups. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 74–81.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Conner, K. O., Copeland, V. C., Grote, N. K., Koeske, G., Rosen, D., Reynolds, C. F., III, & Brown, C. (2010). Mental health treatment seeking among older adults with depression: The impact of stigma and race. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(6), 531–543.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2005). The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: Phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 14(4), 631–648.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Craske, M. (2003). Origins of phobias and anxiety disorders: Why more women than men? (BRAT series on clinical psychology) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Google Scholar
Craske, M. G., & Tsao, J. C. I. (1999). Self-monitoring with panic and anxiety disorders. Psychological Assessment, 11(4), 466–479.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Dugas, M. J., Buhr, K., & Ladouceur, R. (2004). The role of intolerance of uncertainty in etiology and maintenance. In R. G. Heimberg, C. L. Turk, & D. S. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 143–163). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Dugas, M. J., Gosselin, P., & Ladouceur, R. (2001). Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(5), 551–558.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Edelstein, B. A., Woodhead, E. L., Segal, D. L., Heisel, M. J., Bower, E. H., Lowery, A. J., & Stoner, S. A. (2007). Older adult psychological assessment: Current instrument status and related considerations. Clinical Gerontologist, 31(3), 1–35.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Ehring, T., & Watkins, E. R. (2008). Repetitive negative thinking as a transdiagnostic process. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(3), 192–205.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Eisenberg, D., Gollust, S. E., Golberstein, E., & Hefner, J. L. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and suicidality among university students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(4), 534–542.
CrossRef Google Scholar
First, M. B., Williams, J. B., Karg, R. S., & Spitzer, R. L. (2016). SCID-5-CV: Structured clinical interview for DSM-5 disorders: Clinician version. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Google Scholar
Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., & Salkovskis, P. M. (2002). The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: Development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14(4), 485–496.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Goodman, J. H., Watson, G. R., & Stubbs, B. (2016). Anxiety disorders in postpartum women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 203, 292–331.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Hallion, L. S., & Ruscio, A. M. (2013). Should uncontrollable worry be removed from the definition of GAD? A test of incremental validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 369–375.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Heimberg, R. G., & Magee, L. (2014). Social anxiety disorder. In D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (pp. 114–154). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
Google Scholar
Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., & Hinton, D. E. (2010). Cultural aspects in social anxiety and social anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 27(12), 1117–1127.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Hudson, C. G. (2005). Socioeconomic status and mental illness: Tests of the social causation and selection hypotheses. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(1), 3–18.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Hunsley, J., & Mash, E. J. (2007). Evidence-based assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 29–51.
Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Leyro, T. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bernstein, A. (2010). Distress tolerance and psychopathological symptoms and disorders: A review of the empirical literature among adults. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 576–600.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Liebowitz, M. R. (1987). Social phobia. Modern Problems of Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141–173.
Google Scholar
Loughnan, S. A., Wallace, M., Joubert, A. E., Haskelberg, H., Andrews, G., & Newby, J. M. (2018). A systematic review of psychological treatments for clinical anxiety during the perinatal period. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 21(5), 481–490.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales. Sydney: Psychology Foundation of Australia.
Google Scholar
Matthey, S., Barnett, B., Howie, P., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2003). Diagnosing postpartum depression in mothers and fathers: Whatever happened to anxiety? Journal of Affective Disorders, 74(2), 139–147.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1401–1415.
CrossRef Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2011). Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(3), 186–193.
CrossRef Google Scholar
McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(8), 1027–1035.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS- A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(6), 487–495.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Miller, P. R., Dasher, R., Collins, R., Griffiths, P., & Brown, F. (2001). Inpatient diagnostic assessments: 1. Accuracy of structured vs. unstructured interviews. Psychiatry Research, 105(3), 255–264.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Newman, M. G., Zuellig, A. R., Kachin, K. E., Constantino, M. J., Przeworski, A., Erickson, T., & Cashman-McGrath, L. (2002). Preliminary reliability and validity of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire-IV: A revised self-report diagnostic measure of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 33(2), 215–233.
Google Scholar
Ollendick, T. H., & Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R. (2002). The developmental psychopathology of social anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 51(1), 44–58.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pachana, N. A., Byrne, G. B., Siddle, H., Koloski, N., Harley, E., & Arnold, E. (2007). Development and validation of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory. International Psychogeriatrics, 19, 103–114.
Google Scholar
Puliafico, A. C., Comer, J. S., & Pincus, D. B. (2012). Adapting parent-child interaction therapy to treat anxiety disorders in young children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 21(3), 607–619.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Peterson, R. A. (2001). On the use of college students in social science research: Insights from a second-order meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 450–461.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Pieper, M. J., Francke, A. L., van der Steen, J. T., Scherder, E. J., Twisk, J. W., Kovach, C. R., & Achterberg, W. P. (2016). Effects of a stepwise multidisciplinary intervention for challenging behavior in advanced dementia: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 64(2), 261–269.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(8), 741–756.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Roy-Byrne, P. P., Joesch, J. M., Wang, P. S., & Kessler, R. C. (2009). Low socioeconomic status and mental health care use among respondents with anxiety and depression in the NCS- R. Psychiatric Services, 60(9), 1190–1197.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Segal, D. L., June, A., Payne, M., Coolidge, F. L., & Yochim, B. (2010). Development and initial validation of a self-report assessment tool for anxiety among older adults: The Geriatric Anxiety Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 709–714.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Shear, M. K., Brown, T. A., Barlow, D. H., Money, R., Sholomskas, D. E., Woods, S. W., … Papp, L. A. (1997). Multicenter collaborative Panic Disorder Severity Scale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1571–1575.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Sheehan, D. V. (2015). Mini international neuropsychiatric interview 7.0. Jacksonville, FL: Medical Outcomes Systems.
Google Scholar
Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Pina, A. A. (2001). Test-retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses with the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child and parent versions. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), 937–944.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Simons, J., & Gaher, R. (2005). The Distress Tolerance Scale: Development and validation of a self-report measure. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 83–102.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Chorpita, B. F. (2007). Anxiety in children and adolescents. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 347–397). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Google Scholar
Stockdale, S. E., Lagomasino, I. T., Siddique, J., McGuire, T., & Miranda, J. (2008). Racial and ethnic disparities in detection and treatment of depression and anxiety among psychiatric and primary health care visits, 1995–2005. Medical Care, 46(7), 668–677.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Summerfeldt, L. J., & Antony, M. M. (2002). Structured and semistructured diagnostic interviews. In M. M. Antony & D. H. Barlow (Eds.), Handbook of assessment and treatment planning for psychological disorders (pp. 3–37). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Szymanski, J., & O’Donohue, W. (1995). Fear of spiders questionnaire. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 26(1), 31–34.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Taylor, S., Zvolensky, M. J., Cox, B. J., Deacon, B., Heimberg, R. G., Ledley, D. R., … Cardenas, S. J. (2007). Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: Development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychological Assessment, 19, 176–188.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Testa, A., Giannuzzi, R., Daini, S., Bernardini, L., Petrongolo, L., & Gentiloni Silveri, N. (2013). Psychiatric emergencies (part III): Psychiatric symptoms resulting from organic diseases. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 17(Suppl 1), 86–99.
Google Scholar
Tolin, D. F., Fitch, K. E., Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. (2010). Family informants’ perceptions of insight in compulsive hoarding. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(1), 69–81.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Tolin, D. F., Gilliam, C., Wootton, B. M., Bowe, W., Bragdon, L. B., Davis, E., … Hallion, L. S. (2018). Psychometric properties of a structured diagnostic interview for DSM-5 anxiety, mood, and obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Assessment, 25(1), 3–13.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., Dancu, C. V., & Stanley, M. A. (1989). An empirically derived inventory to measure social fears and anxiety: The Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 35–40.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Wilper, A. P., Woolhandler, S., Boyd, J. W., Lasser, K. E., McCormick, D., Bor, D. H., & Himmelstein, D. U. (2009). The health and health care of US prisoners: Results of a nationwide survey. American Journal of Public Health, 99(4), 666–672.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Castriotta, N., Lenze, E. J., Stanley, M. A., & Craske, M. G. (2010). Anxiety disorders in older adults: A comprehensive review. Depression and Anxiety, 27(2), 190–211.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Wolpe, J., & Lang, P. J. (1974). A Fear Survey Schedule for use in behavior therapy. In Behavior modification procedure: A sourcebook (pp. 228–232). New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction.
Google Scholar
Wood, J. J., Piacentini, J. C., Bergman, R. L., McCracken, J., & Barrios, V. (2002). Concurrent validity of the anxiety disorders section of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child and parent versions. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(3), 335–342.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Woodward, A. T., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., Aranda, M. P., Lincoln, K. D., & Chatters, L. M. (2012). Prevalence of lifetime DSM-IV affective disorders among older African Americans, Black Caribbeans, Latinos, Asians and Non-Hispanic White people. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(8), 816–827.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Young, A. S., Klap, R., Sherbourne, C. D., & Wells, K. B. (2001). The quality of care for depressive and anxiety disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(1), 55–61.
CrossRef Google Scholar
Download references
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
Cierra B. Edwards, Amber L. Billingsley & Shari A. Steinman
Authors
- Cierra B. Edwards
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
- Amber L. Billingsley
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
- Shari A. Steinman
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Corresponding author
Correspondence to Shari A. Steinman .
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Daniel L. Segal
Rights and permissions
Reprints and Permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Edwards, C.B., Billingsley, A.L., Steinman, S.A. (2019). Anxiety Disorders. In: Segal, D.L. (eds) Diagnostic Interviewing. Springer, New York, NY. //doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9127-3_6