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Training Linked to Organizational Needs

The nature of the modern business environment makes training more important today than it ever has been. Rapid change, especially in the area of technology,
requires that employees continually learn new skills. The new psychological contract,
described in Chapter 2, has created the expectation that employees invest in their own career development, which requires learning opportunities. Growing reliance
on teamwork creates a demand for the ability to solve problems in teams, an
ability that often requires formal training.

Finally, the diversity of the U.S. population,
coupled with the globalization of business, requires
that employees be able to work well with people who are
different from them. Successful organizations often take
the lead in developing this ability.
With training so essential in modern organizations,
it is important to provide training that is effective. An
effective training program actually teaches what it is
designed to teach, and it teaches skills and behaviors that
will help the organization achieve its goals. To achieve
those goals, HR professionals approach training through

instructional design and
learning management system

figure 7.1 (189)

instructional design
instructional design —a process of systematically developing
training to meet specified needs.
A complete instructional design process includes the
steps shown in Figure 7.1.

It begins with an assessment
of the needs for training—what the organization requires
that its people learn. Next, the organization ensures that
employees are ready for training in terms of their attitudes,
motivation, basic skills, and work environment.

The third step is to plan the training program, including
the program's objectives, instructors, and methods.
The organization then implements the program.
Finally,
evaluating the results of the training provides feedback
for planning future training programs.

learning management system
To carry out this process more efficiently and effectively,
a growing number of organizations are using a
learning management system

Learning management system(LMS),- a computer
application that automates the administration, development,
and delivery of a company's training programs.

Managers and employees can use the LMS to identify training needs and enroll in
courses. LMSs can make training programs more widely available and help companies
reduce travel and other costs by providing online training. Administrative tools
let managers track course enrollments and program completion. The system can be
linked to the organization's performance management system to plan for and manage
training needs, training outcomes, and associated rewards together

Organization Analysis

Usually, the needs assessment begins with the organization analysis.
• This is a process
• for determining the appropriateness of training by evaluating the characteristics
• of the organization.

The organization analysis looks at training needs in light of the
organization's strategy, resources available for training, and management's support for
training activities.
Training needs will vary depending on whether the organization's strategy is based
on growing or shrinking its personnel, whether it is seeking to serve a broad customer
base or focusing on the specific needs of a narrow market segment, and various other
strategic scenarios. An organization that concentrates on serving a niche market may
need to continually update its workforce on a specialized skills set. A company that
is cutting costs with a downsizing strategy may need to train employees who will be
laid off in job search skills. The employees who remain following the downsizing may
need cross-training so that they can handle a wider variety of responsibilities. For an
example of a company where a commitment to training supports corporate strategy,
see the "Best Practices" box.
Anyone planning a training program must consider whether the organization has
the budget, time, and expertise for training.

For example, if the company is installing
computer-based manufacturing equipment in one of its plants, it can ensure
that it has the necessary computer-literate employees in one of three ways.
• If it has the technical experts on its staff, they can train the employees affected by the
change.
• Or the company may use testing to determine which of its employees are
already computer literate and then replace or reassign employees who lack the necessary
skills.
• The third choice is to purchase training from an outside individual or
organization.

Even if training fits the organization's strategy and budget, it can be viable only if
the organization is willing to support the investment in training. Managers increase
the success of training when they support it through such actions as helping trainees
see how they can use their newly learned knowledge, skills, and behaviors on the
job. 5 Conversely, the managers will be most likely to support training if the people
planning it can show that it will solve a significant problem or result in a significant
improvement, relative to its cost. Managers appreciate training proposals with specific
goals, timetables, budgets, and methods for measuring success.

Person Analysis
Following the organizational assessment, needs assessment turns to the remaining
areas of analysis: person and task. The person analysis is a process for determining
individuals' needs and readiness for training. It involves answering several questions:
• Do performance deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill, or ability? (If so,
• training is appropriate; if not, other solutions are more relevant.)
• Who needs training?
• Are these employees ready for training?
The answers to these questions help the manager identify whether training is
appropriate and which employees need training. In certain situations, such as the
introduction of a new technology or service, all employees may need training.

However, when needs assessment is conducted in response to a performance problem,
training is not always the best solution.
The person analysis is therefore critical when training is considered in response to
a performance problem. In assessing the need for training, the manager should identify
all the variables that can influence performance.

The primary variables are the
• person's ability and skills, his or her attitudes and motivation, the organization's input
• (including clear directions, necessary resources, and freedom from interference and
• distractions), performance feedback (including praise and performance standards),
• and positive consequences to motivate good performance. Of these variables, only
ability and skills can be affected by training.

Therefore, before planning a training
program,
• it is important to be sure that any performance problem results from a deficiency
• in knowledge and skills. Otherwise, training dollars will be wasted, because the
• training is unlikely to have much effect on performance.
•
The person analysis also should determine whether employees are ready to undergo
training. In other words, the employees to receive training not only should require
additional knowledge and skill, but must be willing and able to learn. (After our discussion
of the needs assessment, we will explore the topic of employee readiness in
greater detail.)

Task Analysis
The third area of needs assessment is task analysis -
• the process of identifying the tasks, knowledge, skills, and behaviors that training should emphasize.

Usually, task analysis is conducted along with person analysis. Understanding shortcomings in performance
usually requires knowledge about the tasks and work environment as well
as the employee.

To carry out the task analysis
the HR professional looks at the conditions in which tasks are performed. These conditions include the equipment and environment of the job, time constraints (for example, deadlines), safety considerations, and performance standards. These observations form the basis for a description of work activities,
or the tasks required by the person's job.

For a selected job, the analyst interviews
employees and their supervisors to prepare a list of tasks performed in that job. Then
the analyst validates the list by showing it to employees, supervisors, and other subject-
matter experts and asking them to complete a questionnaire about the importance,
frequency, and difficulty of the tasks.

Table 7.1 is an example of a task analysis
questionnaire for an electrical maintenance worker. For each task listed, the subjectmatter
expert uses the scales to rate the task's importance, frequency, and difficulty

The information from these questionnaires is the basis for determining which
tasks will be the focus of the training. The person or committee conducting the needs
assessment must decide what levels of importance, frequency, and difficulty signal
a need for training. Logically, training is most needed for tasks that are important,
frequent, and at least moderately difficult. For each of these tasks, the analysts must
identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform the task. This information
usually comes from interviews with subject-matter experts, such as employees
who currently hold the job.

Employee Readiness Characteristics
To be ready to learn, employees need basic learning skills, especially cognitive ability,
which includes being able to use written and spoken language, solve math problems,
and use logic to solve problems. Ideally, the selection process identified job candidates also the training associated with that job. However, recent forecasts of the skill levels
of the U.S. workforce indicate that many companies will have to work with employees
who lack basic skills.

For example, they may have to provide literacy training or
access to classes teaching basic skills before some employees can participate in jobrelated
training.

Employees learn more from training programs when they are highly motivated to
learn—that is, when they really want to learn the content of the training program.
Employees tend to feel this way if they believe they are able to learn, see potential
benefits from the training program, are aware of their need to learn, see a fit between
the training and their career goals, and have the basic skills needed for participating
in the program. Managers can influence a ready attitude in a variety of ways. For
example, they can provide feedback that encourages employees, establishes rewards
for learning, and communicates with employees about the organization's career paths
and future needs.

Work Environment

Readiness for training also depends on two broad characteristics of the work environment:
situational constraints and social support.

Situational constraints
• are the limits on training's effectiveness that arise from the situation or the conditions within the organization.

Constraints can include
• a lack of money for training,
• lack of time for training or practicing,
• and failure to provide proper tools and materials for learning or applying the lessons of training.

Conversely, trainees are likely to apply what they
learn if the organization gives them opportunities to use their new skills and if it
rewards them for doing so.

Social support
• refers to the ways the organization's people encourage training,
• including giving trainees praise and encouraging words, sharing information about
participating in training programs, and expressing positive attitudes toward the organization's
training programs.

Table 7.2 summarizes some ways in which managers can
support training.
Support can also come from employees' peers. The organization can formally provide
peer support by establishing groups of employees who meet regularly to discuss
their progress.

For example, group members can share how they coped with challenges
related to what they learned. Schlumberger, which provides oil field services sets up online "communities of practice," where geologists, physicists, managers, engineers,
and other employees around the world can trade knowledge to solve problems.
10 Another way to encourage peer support is for the human resource department
or others to publish a newsletter with articles relevant to training, perhaps including
interviews with employees who successfully applied new skills. Finally, the organization
can assign experienced employees as mentors to trainees, providing advice and
support.

Objectives of the Program

Formally establishing objectives for the training program has several benefits

. First,
• a training program based on clear objectives will be more focused and more likely
• to succeed.

In addition
• when trainers know the objectives, they can communicate them to the employees participating in the program. Employees learn best when they know what the training is supposed to accomplish.
Finally
down the road, establishing
objectives provides a basis for measuring whether the program succeeded, as we
will discuss later in this chapter.

Effective training objectives have several characteristics:
• They include a statement of what the employee is expected to do, the quality
or level of performance that is acceptable, and the conditions under which the
employee is to apply what he or she learned (for instance, physical conditions,
mental stresses, or equipment failure). 11
• They include performance standards that are measurable.
• They identify the resources needed to carry out the desired performance or outcome.
Successful training requires employees to learn but also employers to provide
the necessary resources.

A related issue at the outset is who will participate in the training program.
• Some training programs are developed for all employees of the organization or all members
of a team. Other training programs identify individuals who lack desirable skills or
have potential to be promoted, then provide training in the areas of need that are
identified for the particular employees.

When deciding whom to include in training,
• the organization has to avoid illegal discrimination. The organization should
not—intentionally or unintentionally—exclude members of protected groups, such
as women, minorities, and older employees. During the training, all participants
should receive equal treatment, such as equal opportunities for practice. In addition,
the training program should provide reasonable accommodation for trainees with disabilities.
The kinds of accommodations that are appropriate will vary according to the type of training and type of disability. One employee might need an interpreter,
whereas another might need to have classroom instruction provided in a location
accessible to wheelchairs.

In-House or Contracted Out?

An organization can provide an effective training program, even if it lacks expertise
in training. As shown in the "Did You Know?" box, many organizations use outside
experts to develop and instruct training courses. Many companies and consultants
provide training services to organizations. Community colleges often work with
employers to train employees in a variety of skills.

To select a training service, an organization can
• mail several vendors a request for proposal (RFP), which is a document outlining the type of service needed, the type and number of references needed, the number of employees to be trained, the date by which the training is to be completed, and the date by which proposals should be received.

A complete RFP also indicates funding for the project and the process
by which the organization will determine its level of satisfaction. Putting together a
request for proposal is time consuming but worthwhile because it helps the organization
clarify its objectives, compare vendors, and measure results.
Vendors that believe they are able to provide the services outlined in the RFP
submit proposals that provide the types of information requested. The organization
reviews the proposals to eliminate any vendors that do not meet requirements and to
compare the vendors that do qualify. They check references and select a candidate,
based on the proposal and the vendor's answers to questions about its experience,
work samples, and evidence that its training programs meet objectives.
The cost of purchasing training from a contractor can vary substantially. In general,
it is much costlier to purchase specialized training that is tailored to the organization's
unique requirements than to participate in a seminar or training course that teaches
general skills or knowledge. Preparing a specialized training program can require a significant investment of time for material the consultant won't be able to sell to
other clients. Not surprisingly then, in tight economic times, companies have been
shrinking the proportion of their training dollars spent on programs prepared by contractors.
This has helped them lower the cost per hour of their training programs. 12
Even in organizations that send employees to outside training programs, someone
in the organization may be responsible for coordinating the overall training program.
Called training administration, this is typically the responsibility of a human resources
professional. Training administration includes activities before, during, and after
training sessions.

Classroom Instruction
At school, we tend to associate learning with classroom instruction, and that type of
training is most widely used in the workplace, too. Classroom instruction typically
involves a trainer lecturing a group. Trainers often supplement lectures with slides,
discussions, case studies, question-and-answer sessions, and role playing. Actively
involving trainees enhances learning.
When the course objectives call for presenting information on a specific topic to
many trainees, classroom instruction is one of the least expensive and least timeconsuming
ways to accomplish that goal.

Learning will be more effective if trainers
enhance lectures with job-related examples and opportunities for hands-on learning.
For more ideas on creating presentations that meet course objectives, see the "HR
How To" box.
Modern technology has expanded the notion of the classroom to classes of trainees
scattered in various locations. With distance learning, trainees at different locations
attend programs online, using their computers to view lectures, participate in
discussions, and share documents.

Technology applications in distance learning may
include videoconferencing, e-mail, instant messaging, document-sharing software,
and Web cameras. General Mills uses these virtual classrooms at its smaller facilities,
where offering a class on site is not cost-effective. Employees can sign up for online
courses about specific products, general technical skills, and work functions such as
maintenance procedures. 14
Distance learning provides many of the benefits of classroom training without
the cost and time of travel to a shared classroom. The major disadvantage of distance
learning is that interaction between the trainer and audience may be limited.
To overcome this hurdle, distance learning usually provides a communications link
between trainees and trainer. Also, on-site instructors or facilitators should be available
to answer questions and moderate question-and-answer sessions.

Audiovisual Training
Presentation methods need not require trainees to attend a class. Trainees can also
work independently, using course material prepared on CDs and DVDs or in workbooks.
Audiovisual techniques such as overhead transparencies, PowerPoint or
other presentation software, and videos or audio clips can also supplement classroom
instruction. Some technologies make audiovisual training available as podcasts on portable
devices such as PDAs and iPods or other portable audio players. As video-enabled
devices become more widespread, the use of video files is likely to grow.

At Capital One,
employees enrolled in training courses receive iPods. They can download programs on
topics such as leadership, conflict management, and customer service. To make the
audio programs more engaging, some are written in the format of a radio call-in show.
In classroom programs, role-play and other exercises are recorded and then made available
for download to trainees' iPods. 15 Challenges of using podcasts for learning include
ensuring that employees know when and how to use the technology, encouraging collaboration
and interaction among trainees, and ensuring that employees can obtain
the necessary downloads from their particular location and with their mobile device. 16
Users of audiovisual training often have some control over the presentation. They
can review material and may be able to slow down or speed up the lesson. Videos can show situations and equipment that cannot be easily demonstrated
in a classroom. Another advantage of audiovisual presentations
is that they give trainees a consistent presentation,
not affected by an individual trainer's goals and skills. The problems
associated with these methods may include their trying to
present too much material, poorly written dialogue, overuse of
features such as humor or music, and drama that distracts from
the key points. A well-written and carefully produced video can
overcome these problems.

Computer-Based Training
Although almost all organizations use classroom training,
new technologies are gaining in popularity as technology
improves and becomes cheaper. With computer-based training,
participants receive course materials and instruction
distributed over the Internet or on CD-ROM. Often, these
materials are interactive, so participants can answer questions
and try out techniques, with course materials adjusted
according to participants' responses. Online training programs may allow trainees to
submit questions via e-mail and to participate in online discussions. Multimedia capabilities
enable computers to provide sounds, images, and video presentations, along
with text.
Computer-based training is generally less expensive than putting an instructor in a
classroom of trainees. The low cost to deliver information gives the company flexibility
in scheduling training, so that it can fit around work requirements. Training can
be delivered in smaller doses, so material is easier to remember. Trainees often appreciate
the multimedia capabilities, which appeal to several senses, and the chance to
learn from experts anywhere in the world. Finally, it is easier to customize computerbased
training for individual learners.
Current applications of computer-based training can extend its benefits:

• E-learning involves receiving training via the Internet or the organization's
intranet, typically through some combination of Web-based training modules,
distance learning, and virtual classrooms. E-learning uses electronic networks for
delivering and sharing information, and it offers tools and information for helping
trainees improve performance. Training programs may include links to other
online information resources and to trainees and experts for collaboration on problem
solving. The e-learning system may also process enrollments, test and evaluate
participants, and monitor progress. Ritz Camera Centers uses e-learning to build
selling skills and keep employees up-to-date on product information. With employees
widely dispersed among its stores and working different hours, e-learning makes
training available to everyone and verifies (through online quizzes at the end of
each module) that employees are learning. 18
• Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) provide access to skills training,
information, and expert advice when a problem occurs on the job. 19 As employees
need to learn new skills, they can use the EPSS, which gives them access to
the particular information they need, such as detailed instructions on how to perform
an unfamiliar task. Using an EPSS is faster and more relevant than attending
classes, even classes offered online.

The best e-learning combines the advantages of the Internet with the principles
of a good learning environment. It takes advantage of the Web's dynamic nature and
ability to use many positive learning features, including hyperlinks to other training
sites and content, control by the trainee, and ability for trainees to collaborate.

On-the-Job Training

Although people often associate training with classrooms, much learning occurs while
employees are performing their jobs.

On-the-job training (OJT)- refers to training
methods in which a person with job experience and skill guides trainees in practicing
job skills at the workplace. This type of training takes various forms, including
apprenticeships and internships.

An apprenticeship- is a work-study training method that teaches job skills
through a combination of structured on-the-job training and classroom training.
The OJT component of an apprenticeship involves the apprentice assisting a certified
tradesperson (a journeyman) at the work site.

Typically, the classroom training is
provided by local trade schools, high schools, and community colleges. Government
requirements for an apprenticeship program vary by occupation, but programs generally
range from one to six years, with each year including 2,000 hours of on-the-job
training plus at least 144 hours of classroom instruction. Some apprenticeship programs
are sponsored by individual companies, others by employee unions. As shown
in the left column of Table 7.4 , most apprenticeship programs are in the skilled trades,
such as plumbing, carpentry, and electrical work.

For trainees, a major advantage of
apprenticeship is the ability to earn an income while learning a trade. In addition,
training through an apprenticeship is usually effective because it involves hands-on
learning and extensive practice. At its manufacturing facility in Toledo, Ohio, Libbey

Glass has apprenticeship programs in mold making, machine repair, millwrighting,
and maintenance repair. The program develops employees who are open to change,
enables Libbey to use employees rather than outsource work, helps the company
attract ambitious workers, and lets the company tailor training and work experiences
to meet its specific needs.

An internship is on-the-job learning sponsored by an educational institution
as a component of an academic program. The sponsoring school works with local
employers to place students in positions where they can gain experience related to
their area of study. For example, Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne
(IPFW) has partnered with Sweetwater Sound to expand IPFW's music technology
program. Sweetwater, which combines recording services at its headquarters with a
giant music retailing business, offers internships to juniors and seniors in the music
technology program. In addition, IPFW and Sweetwater share facilities, and experts
from Sweetwater serve as adjunct professors, teaching film scoring, recording arts, and
other courses.

Many internships prepare students for professions such as those listed
in the right column of Table 7.4 .
To be effective, OJT programs should include several characteristics:

When simulations are conducted online, trainees often participate by creating
avatars,- or computer depictions of themselves, which they manipulate onscreen to
play roles as workers or other participants in a job-related situation. Stapoil, a Norwegian
oil company, has an oil platform in Second Life that allows trainees' avatars
to walk around it. Stapoil uses the oil platform for safety training. It catches fire, and
employees have to find lifeboats to exit the platform safely.

Virtual reality -is a computer-based technology that provides an interactive,
three-dimensional learning experience. Using specialized equipment or viewing the
virtual model on a computer screen, trainees move through the simulated environment
and interact with its components. Devices relay information from the environment
to the trainees' senses. For example, audio interfaces, gloves that provide a
sense of touch, treadmills, or motion platforms create a realistic but artificial environment.
Devices also communicate information about the trainee's movements to
a computer.
Virtual reality applications are as diverse as surgery and welding. 26 In the simulated
environment being constructed at the Jump Trading Simulation and Conference
Education Center at OSF Saint Francis Medical Center in Peoria, Illinois, doctors
will manipulate computerized surgical instruments as they practice new procedures
on mannequins. In industry, students learning to weld can practice with a virtual
welding system called VRTEX 360, which uses monitors on a virtual welding gun
and helmet to gather data for feedback after training exercises are complete. The
VRTEX 360 not only offers a safe and economical alternative to real welding projects,
but it also is eco-

Business Games and Case Studies

Training programs use business games and case studies to develop employees' management
skills. A case study is a detailed description of a situation that trainees study and
discuss. Cases are designed to develop higher-order thinking skills, such as the ability
to analyze and evaluate information. They also can be a safe way to encourage trainees
to take appropriate risks, by giving them practice in weighing and acting on uncertain
outcomes. There are many sources of case studies, including Harvard Business
School, the Darden Business School at the University of Virginia, and McGraw-Hill
publishing company.
With business games, trainees gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
that influence the outcome of the game. For instance, managers at NetApp participated
in a game where they assumed the roles of the top executives of an imaginary
company (modeled after NetApp). Five-person teams competed to produce the greatest
sales and profits as the game presented them with one challenge after another.
At the end of the simulation, the participants discussed the impact of the decisions they had made along the way. 27 Games stimulate learning because they actively
involve participants and mimic the competitive nature of business. A realistic game
may be more meaningful to trainees than presentation techniques such as classroom
instruction.
Training with case studies and games requires that participants come together to
discuss the cases or the progress of the game. This requires face-to-face or electronic
meetings. Also, participants must be willing to be actively involved in analyzing the
situation and defending their decisions.

Experiential Programs

To develop teamwork and leadership skills, some organizations enroll their employees
in a form of training called experiential programs.

In experiential programs-, participants
learn concepts and then apply them by simulating the behaviors involved
and analyzing the activity, connecting it with real-life situations.

Example In France, some
businesses are signing up their managers to attend cooking schools, where they whip
up a gourmet meal together. Jacques Bally, who works for a school run by one of
France's top chefs, says cooking is a great way to learn teamwork: "It's like in any
squad, everyone is responsible for playing their part; they have their own tasks but
a common objective—and if they want to eat in the end, then they have to get the
meal ready."

Experiential training programs should follow several guidelines. A program should
be related to a specific business problem. Participants should feel challenged and
move outside their comfort zones but within limits that keep their motivation strong
and help them understand the purpose of the program.

Adventure learning
One form of experiential program, called adventure learning, uses challenging,
structured outdoor activities, which may include difficult sports such as dogsledding
or mountain climbing. Other activities may be structured tasks like climbing walls,
completing rope courses, climbing ladders, or making "trust falls" (in which each
trainee stands on a table and falls backward into the arms of other group members).
The impact of adventure learning programs has not been rigorously tested, but
participants report they gained a greater understanding of themselves and the ways
they interact with their co-workers. One key to the success of such programs may be
that the organization insist that entire work groups participate together. This encourages
people to see, discuss, and correct the kinds of behavior that keep the group from
performing well. The "HR Oops!" box shows one potential limitation of adventure
learning.

Before requiring employees to participate in experiential programs, the organization
should consider the possible drawbacks. Because these programs are usually
physically demanding and often require participants to touch each other, companies
face certain risks. Some employees may be injured or may feel that they were sexually
harassed or that their privacy was invaded. Also, the Americans with Disabilities Act
(discussed in Chapter 3) raises questions about requiring employees with disabilities
to participate in physically demanding training experiences

Team Training

A possible alternative to experiential programs is team training, which coordinates
the performance of individuals who work together to achieve a common goal. An
organization may benefit from providing such training to groups when group members
must share information and group performance depends on the performance of the
individual group members. Examples include the military, nuclear power plants, and
commercial airlines. In those work settings, much work is performed by crews, groups,
or teams. Success depends on individuals' coordinating their activities to make decisions,
perhaps in dangerous situations.

Ways to conduct team training include cross-training and coordination training.

In cross-training
• team members understand and practice each other's skills so that
they are prepared to step in and take another member's place. In a factory, for example,
production workers could be cross-trained to handle all phases of assembly. This
enables the company to move them to the positions where they are most needed to
complete an order on time.

Coordination training
• trains the team in how to share information and decisions
to obtain the best team performance. This type of training is especially important
for commercial aviation and surgical teams. Both of these kinds of teams must monitor different aspects of equipment and the environment at the same time sharing
information to make the most effective decisions regarding patient care or aircraft
safety and performance.
To improve the performance of its ramp employees, United Airlines arranged for
them to attend Pit Instruction & Training, near Charlotte, North Carolina. The
training program uses a quarter-mile racetrack and pit road to train NASCAR pit
crews, but it also provides team training to companies that want their teams to work
as efficiently together as a NASCAR pit crew. In United's training program, the ramp
workers actually work on race cars—changing tires, filling gas tanks, and so on. The
trainers take videos, time them, and deliver feedback on their performance as they
face challenges such as staff shortages or a parking spot strewn with lug nuts. The goal
is for the ramp workers to develop skills in organizing, communicating, and standardizing
their work. 32

Training may also target the skills needed by the teams' leaders.

Team leader training
• refers to training people in the skills necessary for team leadership. For
example, the training may be aimed at helping team leaders learn to resolve conflicts
or coordinate activities.

Action Learning

Another form of group building is action learning- In this type of training, teams
or work groups get an actual problem, work on solving it and commit to an action
plan, and are accountable for carrying out the plan.

Ideally, the project is one for
which the efforts and results will be visible not only to participants but also to others in the organization. The visibility and impact of the task are intended to make participation
exciting, relevant, and engaging.

Example
At General Electric, action learning has
included projects aimed at analyzing the market potential of various countries with
fast-developing markets. To heighten the learning, organizations can get their best
leaders involved as mentors and coaches to the participants.
The effectiveness of action learning has not been formally evaluated. This type of
training seems to result in a great deal of learning, however, and employees are able to
apply what they learn because action learning involves actual problems the organization
is facing. The group approach also helps teams identify behaviors that interfere
with problem solving.

Employees are most likely to learn when training is linked to their current job experiences
and tasks. There are a number of ways trainers can make this link. Training
sessions should present material using familiar concepts, terms, and examples. As far
as possible, the training context—such as the physical setting or the images presented
on a computer—should mirror the work environment. Along with physical elements,
the context should include emotional elements. In the earlier example of training
store personnel to handle upset customers, the physical context is more relevant if
it includes trainees acting out scenarios of personnel dealing with unhappy customers.
The role-play interaction between trainees adds emotional realism and further
enhances learning.

To fully understand and remember the content of the training, employees need a
chance to demonstrate and practice what they have learned. Trainers should provide
ways to actively involve the trainees, have them practice repeatedly, and have them
complete tasks within a time that is appropriate in light of the learning objectives.
Practice requires physically carrying out the desired behaviors, not just describing
them. Practice sessions could include role-playing interactions, filling out relevant
forms, or operating machinery or equipment to be used on the job. The more the
trainee practices these activities, the more comfortable he or she will be in applying
the skills on the job. People tend to benefit most from practice that occurs over
several sessions, rather than one long practice session. 36 For complex tasks, it may be
most effective to practice a few skills or behaviors at a time, then combine them in
later practice sessions.
Trainees need to understand whether or not they are succeeding. Therefore, training
sessions should offer feedback. Effective feedback focuses on specific behaviors
and is delivered as soon as possible after the trainees practice or demonstrate what
they have learned. 37 One way to do this is to videotape trainees, then show the video
while indicating specific behaviors that do or do not match the desired outcomes of the training. Feedback should include praise when trainees show they have learned
material, as well as guidance on how to improve.
Well-designed training helps people remember the content. Training programs
need to break information into chunks that people can remember. Research suggests
that people can attend to no more than four to five items at a time. If a concept or
procedure involves more than five items, the training program should deliver information
in shorter sessions or chunks. 38 Other ways to make information more memorable
include presenting it with visual images and practicing some tasks enough that
they become automatic.

Written materials should have an appropriate reading level. A simple way to assess
readability —the difficulty level of written materials—is to look at the words being
used and at the length of sentences. In general, it is easiest to read short sentences and
simple, standard words. If training materials are too difficult to understand, several
adjustments can help. The basic approach is to rewrite the material looking for ways
to simplify it.
• Substitute simple, concrete words for unfamiliar or abstract words.
• Divide long sentences into two or more short sentences.
• Divide long paragraphs into two or more short paragraphs.
• Add checklists (like this one) and illustrations to clarify the text.

Another approach is to substitute video, hands-on learning,
or other nonwritten methods for some of the written
material. A longer-term solution is to use tests to identify
employees who need training to improve their reading levels
and to provide that training first.

Measuring Results of Training

After a training program ends, or at intervals during an
ongoing training program, organizations should ensure that
the training is meeting objectives. The stage to prepare for
evaluating a training program is when the program is being
developed. Along with designing course objectives and content,
the planner should identify how to measure achievement
of objectives. Depending on the objectives, the
evaluation can use one or more of the measures shown in
Figure 7.3 : trainee satisfaction with the program, knowledge
or abilities gained, use of new skills and behavior on the
job (transfer of training), and improvements in individual
and organizational performance. The usual way to measure
whether participants have acquired information is to administer tests on paper or
electronically. Trainers or supervisors can observe whether participants demonstrate
the desired skills and behaviors. Surveys measure changes in attitude. Changes in
company performance have a variety of measures, many of which organizations keep
track of for preparing performance appraisals, annual reports, and other routine documents
in order to demonstrate the final measure of success shown in Figure 7.3 : return
on investment.

Evaluation Methods

Evaluation of training should look for transfer of training- or on-the-job use of
knowledge, skills, and behaviors learned in training.

Transfer of training requires that
employees actually learn the content of the training program and that the necessary
conditions are in place for employees to apply what they learned. Thus, the assessment
can look at whether employees have an opportunity to perform the skills related
to the training. The organization can measure this by asking employees three questions
about specific training-related tasks:
1. Do you perform the task?
2. How many times do you perform the task?
3. To what extent do you perform difficult and challenging learned tasks?
Frequent performance of difficult training-related tasks would signal great opportunity
to perform. If there is low opportunity to perform, the organization should
conduct further needs assessment and reevaluate readiness to learn. Perhaps the organization
does not fully support the training activities in general or the employee's
supervisor does not provide opportunities to apply new skills. Lack of transfer can
also mean that employees have not learned the course material. The organization
might offer a refresher course to give trainees more practice. Another reason for poor
transfer of training is that the content of the training may not be important for the
employee's job.

Assessment of training also should evaluate training outcomes, that is, what (if anything)
has changed as a result of the training. The relevant training outcomes are the
ones related to the organization's goals for the training and its overall performance.
Possible outcomes include the following: Information such as facts, techniques, and procedures that trainees can recall after the training.
• Skills that trainees can demonstrate in tests or on the job.
• Trainee and supervisor satisfaction with the training program.
• Changes in attitude related to the content of the training (for example, concern
• for safety or tolerance of diversity).
• Improvements in individual, group, or company performance (for example, greater
• customer satisfaction, more sales, fewer defects).

Training is a significant part of many organizations' budgets. Therefore, economic
measures are an important way to evaluate the success of a training program.
Businesses that invest in training want to achieve a high return on investment —the
monetary benefits of the investment compared to the amount invested, expressed
as a percentage. For example, IBM's e-learning program for new managers, Basic
Blue, costs $8,708 per manager. 39 The company has measured an improvement
in each new manager's performance worth $415,000. That gives IBM a benefit of
$415,000 − $8,708 = $406,292 for each manager. This is an extremely large return on
investment: $406,292/$8,708 = 46.65, or 4,665 percent! In other words, for every $1
IBM invests in Basic Blue, it receives almost $47.
For any of these methods, the most accurate but most costly way to evaluate
the training program is to measure performance, knowledge, or attitudes among all
employees before the training and then train only part of the employees. After the
training is complete, the performance, knowledge, or attitudes are again measured,
and the trained group is compared with the untrained group. A simpler but less accurate
way to assess the training is to conduct the pretest and posttest on all trainees,
comparing their performance, knowledge, or attitudes before and after the training.
This form of measurement does not rule out the possibility that change resulted from
something other than training (for example, a change in the compensation system).
The simplest approach is to use only a posttest. Use of only a posttest can show if
trainees have reached a specified level of competency, knowledge, or skill. Of course,
this type of measurement does not enable accurate comparisons, but it may be sufficient,
depending on the cost and purpose of the training.

Applications of Training
Two training applications that have become widespread among U.S. companies are
orientation of new employees and training in how to manage workforce diversity.

Orientation of New Employees

Orientation
Training designed to
prepare employees
to perform their jobs
effectively, learn about
their organization,
and establish work
relationships.

Many employees receive their first training during their first days on the job. This
training is the organization's orientation program—its training designed to prepare
employees to perform their job effectively, learn about the organization, and establish
work relationships.

Organizations provide for orientation because, no matter
how realistic the information provided during employment interviews and site visits,
people feel shock and surprise when they start a new job. 41 Also, employees need to
become familiar with job tasks and learn the details of the organization's practices,
policies, and procedures.
The objectives of orientation programs include making new employees familiar
with the organization's rules, policies, and procedures. Table 7.6 summarizes the content
of a typical orientation program. Such a program provides information about
the overall company and about the department in which the new employee will be
working. The topics include social as well as technical aspects of the job. Miscellaneous
information helps employees from out of town learn about the surrounding
community.
At Randstad North America, a staffing services company, orientation for new staffing
agents takes place over 16 weeks. To get basic facts about their job, new employees
use online resources, while classroom instruction focuses on understanding the
Randstad culture. District managers give presentations on the company's culture, job
expectations, selling, performance, and bonus plans. Trainees shadow more experienced
co-workers, and managers provide coaching. The company credits this orientation
program with enabling agents to increase sales by $4 million. 42
Orientation programs may combine various training methods such as printed and
audiovisual materials, classroom instruction, on-the-job training, and e-learning.
Decisions about how to conduct the orientation depend on the type of material to be
covered and the number of new employees, among other factors

Diversity Training

In response to Equal Employment Opportunity laws and market forces, many organizations
today are concerned about managing diversity—creating an environment that
allows all employees to contribute to organizational goals and experience personal
growth. This kind of environment includes access to jobs as well as fair and positive
treatment of all employees. Chapter 3 described how organizations manage diversity
by complying with the law. Besides these efforts, many organizations provide training
designed to teach employees attitudes and behaviors that support the management of
diversity, such as appreciation of cultural differences and avoidance of behaviors that
isolate or intimidate others.
Training designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and/or develop
skills needed to work with a diverse workforce is called diversity training.

These programs generally emphasize either attitude awareness and change or behavior
change.
Programs that focus on attitudes have objectives to increase participants' awareness
of cultural and ethnic differences, as well as differences in personal characteristics and
physical characteristics (such as disabilities). These
programs are based on the assumption that people
who become aware of differences and their stereotypes
about those differences will be able to avoid
letting stereotypes influence their interactions
with people. Many of these programs use video
and experiential exercises to increase employees'
awareness of the negative emotional and performance
effects of stereotypes and resulting behaviors
on members of minority groups. A risk of these
programs—especially when they define diversity
mainly in terms of race, ethnicity, and sex—is that
they may alienate white male employees, who conclude
that if the company values diversity more, it
values them less. 43 Diversity training is more likely
to get everyone onboard if it emphasizes respecting
and valuing all the organization's employees in
order to bring out the best work from everyone to
open up the best opportunities for everyone.
Programs that focus on behavior aim at changing
the organizational policies and individual
behaviors that inhibit employees' personal growth
and productivity. Sometimes these programs identify
incidents that discourage employees from
working up to their potential. Employees work in. groups to discuss specific promotion opportunities or management practices that they
believe were handled unfairly. Another approach starts with the assumption that all
individuals differ in various ways and teaches skills for constructively handling the
communication barriers, conflicts, and misunderstandings that necessarily arise when
different people try to work together. 44 Trainees may be more positive about receiving
this type of training than other kinds of diversity training. Finally, some organizations
provide diversity training in the form of cultural immersion, sending employees directly
into communities where they have to interact with persons from different cultures,
races, and nationalities. Participants might talk with community members, work in
community organizations, or learn about events that are significant to the community
they visit. Pepsi addresses behavior change at the highest level of the organization.
Senior executives are assigned to be sponsors for specific employee groups, including
African Americans, Latinos, Asians, women, white males, women of color, disabled
employees, and employees who are gay, lesbian, or transgendered. The executives are
responsible for understanding the needs of their assigned group, for identifying talent,
and for mentoring at least three of these employees. 45
Although many organizations have used diversity training, few have provided programs
lasting more than a day, and few have researched their long-term effectiveness.
46 The little research that exists on the subject has provided no support for a
direct link between diversity programs and business success, but there is evidence that
some characteristics make diversity training more effective. 47 Most important, the
training should be tied to business objectives, such as understanding customers. The
support and involvement of top management, and the involvement of managers at
all levels, also are important. Diversity training should emphasize learning behaviors
and skills, not blaming employees. Finally, the program should help employees see
how they can apply their new skills on the job, deliver rewards for performance, be
tied to organizational policies and practices that value diversity, and include a way to
measure the success of the training.
An example of a company that gets it right is Sodexho USA, a food and facilities
management company, which provides diversity training at all levels. Senior
executives participate in classroom training reinforced with community involvement
and mentoring relationships. They learn how valuing diversity helps the company
meet business challenges, and they are assessed for meeting targets to hire and
promote a diverse group of employees, as well as for participation in training, mentoring,
and community outreach. Managers can participate in learning labs that
address topics such as cross-cultural communications and generational differences
in the workplace. Employees have opportunities to learn diversity-related skills relevant
to their jobs, such as how to sell to diverse clients or how to recruit diverse
employees. Significantly, Sodexho also makes an effort to measure the results of
these programs. It has found, for example, that its mentoring program has made a
measurable difference in the productivity and retention of female employees and
employees of color.

Is the limit on training effectiveness that arises from the conditions within the organization quizlet?

Which form of training prepares employees to perform their jobs effectively learn about the organization and establish work relationships quizlet?

What are characteristics of effective training objectives quizlet?

What is the main objective of diversity training programs that focus on behavior?