Freedom had to take on a new meaning to confront early 20th century social and economic realities Show All kinds of workers complained of a loss of freedom in this period. Large auto, electrical, steel, and other companies sought greater control over work processes, and found help in Frederick W. Taylor's' method of "scientific management"—a way of increasing production and profits by scientifically studying and controlling costs and work practices. Many skilled workers saw "Taylorism" as an assault on their traditional control over work processes, and thus, a loss of freedom. Greater numbers of white-collar workers, such as salespeople, salaried professionals, corporate managers, while making higher incomes than most workers, experienced their work as a loss of freedom, as they once would have owned their own business. These developments made "industrial democracy" and "industrial freedom" central to Progressive language and demands. Many Progressives, such as Louis D. Brandeis, an ally of the labor movement and President Wilson's appointee to the Supreme Court in 1916, believed that unions were necessary to give workers a role in economic decision making over, not just wages and working conditions, but also managerial decisions such as layoffs and profit distribution. Socialism reached is greatest influence in the Progressive era Most important in spreading socialist ideas and linking socialism to American ideals of equality, self-government, and freedom was Eugene V. Debs, the former union leader jailed during the Pullman Strike of 1894. For two decades, Debs toured the nation, preaching that "political equality and economic freedom" could be won only by socialism's democratic control of the economy. Debs united the disparate and often dueling factions of the party. As socialism gained in strength in Europe, particularly in Germany, France, and Scandinavia, Debs led socialism forward in America, too. In 1912, he received 900,000 votes for president, nearly 6 percent of the total, and the socialist newspaper, Appeal To Reason, had the largest weekly circulation in the nation. American Federation of Labor (AFL) The AFL mostly represented America's most privileged workers—skilled industrial and craft labor, mostly all white, male, and native-born. In 1905, unionists rejecting the AFL's exclusionist approach formed the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). The IWW was both a union and a revolutionary organization dedicated to seizing the means of production and abolishing the state, and it made solidarity its guiding principle. It sought to organize all workers excluded from the AFL: immigrant factory workers, migrant timber and agricultural workers, women, blacks, and even the Chinese. Mass
strikes by immigrant workers placed "collective bargaining" at the forefront of Progressive reform Union struggles put free speech at the center of Progressive reform. Even while courts rejected union's claims to be exercising First Amendment rights, labor struggles created the modern demands of civil liberties so critical in the twentieth century. In many areas, especially "company towns" dominated by an employer, workers were not free to speak out without being fired, or worse. The IWW in particular waged a series of "free speech" fights as a means for organizing unions in the West. When IWW members were arrested and jailed for speaking in public, the union would send hundreds and thousands more members to speak, forcing local governments to arrest them all. Eventually, local officials would become overwhelmed and would allow IWW members to speak. Term "feminism" became popular in the Progressive era Freedom was central to the lyrical left's vision of society, but their individualist notion of freedom was quite different from other Progressives' interest in order and efficiency. Yet, sexual freedom came alive in this period. Sigmund Freud lectured in America in 1909 and found that Americans were familiar with his theories of infantile sexuality, repression, and the irrational. Free sexual expression and reproductive choice became critical elements of women's liberation for many women. New sexual attitudes spread beyond bohemia to many young, unmarried, and independent women, and the new tolerance for sexual freedom drew gay people to Greenwich Village for the first time. The right to "control one's body" meant the ability to refuse sexual advances (including from a spouse) , but also involvement in an active sexual life without necessarily bearing children Even Native Americans shared the Progressive impulse. The Society of American Indians, founded in 1911, was a typical reform organization. It united Indian intellectuals around discussion of Native Americans' problems and sought to arouse public awareness. It brought together Indians from many different backgrounds and created a pan-Indian public space free from white influence. Many in the Society shared the basic goals of federal Indian policy, including transforming communal lands on the reservations into family farms. But the group's founder, Carlos Montezuma, became an avowed critic who condemned government paternalism and demanded the abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. He called for self-determination and for Indians to be granted full citizenship. Progressivism was a worldwide movement Progressives thought modern society required basic changes in the functions of political authority, whether to check the power of corporations, protect consumers, civilize market relations, or guarantee industrial freedom in the workplace. Influenced by Gilded Age and European reforms, Progressives sought to renew notions of an activist, socially conscious government. They rejected old assumptions that powerful government threatened liberty. They saw freedom as a positive, not a negative, concept, in which freedom represented the power of the government to intervene in public and private life to improve society. In America, with a decentralized, federal system of government, most Progressive reforms were enacted at the state and local levels. Progressives attempted to reduce the power of political bosses, assert public control over "natural monopolies" like gas and water works, and improve public transportation. They raised property taxes to spend more on schools, parks, and other public facilities. And because state legislatures defined the powers of city governments, urban Progressives often took reform campaigns to the state level. The most influential state-level Progressive administration was that of Robert M. La Follette, who made Wisconsin a "laboratory for democracy." After serving as a Republican congressman, La Follette became convinced that an alliance of railroad and lumber companies controlled state politics. When elected governor in 1900, he passed a series of measures that came to be known as the "Wisconsin Idea": nominations of candidates for elections through primary elections rather than party bosses, taxation on corporate wealth, and state regulation of railroads and public utilities. Restore democracy by returning political power to citizens and civic harmony to a divided America Progressive political reforms were often contradictory. The electorate was expanded and contracted, empowered and removed from influencing government. Democracy was expanded by the Seventeenth Amendment, which made U.S. senators elected by popular vote rather than by state legislatures, by adoption of popular election of judges, and by primary elections among party members to select candidates. Several states adopted the initiative (voters propose legislation), the referendum (voters directly vote on a proposal), and recall (voters remove officials). The era ended with suffrage for women, the largest democratic expansion in American history. But some Progressive reforms also restricted democracy, notably the disenfranchisement of blacks in the South. Many localities replaced elected mayors with appointed, nonpartisan commissions or city managers, removing local government from the control of political machines, but also popular control. New literacy tests and residency and registration requirements limited the right to vote among the poor and migrants. Progressive electoral reforms marked a retreat from the notion that voting was an inherent right of American citizenship. Most white Progressives were also disinterested in the plight of African-Americans. Most Progressives were leery of the real world of politics, in which people pursued narrow class, ethnic, or regional interests. Many Progressives thus turned to college professors and other professional "experts,"
believing government could ensure intelligent rule over society through a democracy run by impartial experts unaccountable to citizens. This was part of Progressives' impulse toward order, efficiency, and centralized management as a means of ensuring social justice. In Drift and Mastery (1914), Walter Lippman argued the nation could either continue to "drift," operating according to a dated belief in individual autonomy, or embrace "mastery," using scientific inquiry to address modern social
problems. For Lippman and others, political freedom rested not in direct political participation but in the formation of public policy by the most qualified Women were central to Progressive politics - challenging barriers to political participation Addams typified the era's "new woman," as more and more women went to college and entered professions such as social services, nursing, and education. Middle-class women's efforts to help the poor, working women, and children helped expand government's role in society. Through settlement and other social work, these women learned that legislation was necessary for dealing with housing, income, and health inequalities. Hull House led a number of campaigns for legislation in Illinois, around shorter working hours, workplace safety, and union organizing rights, which inspired others to do likewise. In the South, however, race affected reform, as ending child labor was justified as necessary for giving white children the education they would need as members of the South's ruling race. The settlement houses have been called "spearheads of reform," as they produced prominent Progressive leaders, such as Julia Lathrop, the first women to head a federal agency (the Children's Bureau, founded in 1912 to investigate conditions of mothers and children and advocate for them), and Florence Kelley, who organized the National Consumers League to use purchasing power as a way to force manufacturers to improve working conditions. Increase of women in college and professions
(particularly social service, nursing, and education) Mass movement after 1900 The celebration of women's domestic role actually inspired the suffrage movement. Many Progressive proposals emerged from the idea that the state should protect women and children, and female reformers formed a movement for improving the lives of poor mothers and children. Many states enacted pensions for mothers to enable them to care for children. Such "maternalist" reforms were based on the assumption that government should encourage women's ability to bear and raise children and allow them to be economically independent. Other Progressive laws recognized that women worked outside the home, but defined them as a dependent group (like children) that needed state protection in ways male workers were not. In the landmark case, Muller v. Oregon (1908), the U.S. Supreme Court accepted the arguments of Louis D. Brandeis that long hours of labor were dangerous for women, whose child-bearing abilities required government protection. This was the first major breach of "liberty of contract" doctrine, just three years after the Lochner decision. But the costs of Muller were high, as while even more states passed protective laws for women workers, these laws both benefited women and tied them to their family roles, and kept reinforced gender discrimination and exclusion in labor markets. Though the use of government to regulate working conditions raised questions about liberty of contract, maternalist policies built gender inequality into the early foundations of the welfare state. The domestic role of women actually inspired the suffrage movement Brandeis imagined a different kind of welfare state from that of the maternalists - his idea was rooted less in healthy motherhood than in ideas of universal economic entitlement Nationalization Theodore Roosevelt was the first of the Progressive-era presidents to address this question. As vice president, Roosevelt became the youngest president ever to hold office after an anarchist assassinated William McKinley in 1901. He was an impetuous and energetic man who celebrated the "strenuous life" of manly adventure and daring, and he became the model for the twentieth-century president, actively and continuously involved in domestic and foreign policy and setting the political agenda. Roosevelt advanced a program he called the "Square Deal," which addressed problems of economic consolidation by distinguishing between "good" and "bad" corporations. Soon after taking office, Roosevelt shocked the business world by prosecuting the Northern Securities Company, a "holding" company created by financier J.P. Morgan to run three western railroads that monopolized rail transport between the Great Lakes and the Pacific. In 1904,
the Supreme Court handed the antitrust movement a significant victory by ordering Northern Securities dissolved. Became the youngest President ever to hold office after an anarchist assassinated William McKinley in 1901 Roosevelt advanced a program he called the "Square Deal," which addressed problems of economic consolidation by
distinguishing between "good" and "bad" corporations. Soon after taking office, Roosevelt shocked the business world by prosecuting the Northern Securities Company, a "holding" company created by financier J.P. Morgan to run three western railroads that monopolized rail transport between the Great Lakes and the Pacific. In 1904, the Supreme Court handed the antitrust movement a significant victory by ordering Northern Securities dissolved. In the 1890s, Scottish-born naturalist John Muir founded the Sierra Club to help preserve forests from uncontrolled logging from timber corporations. Muir's deep love for nature came from religious beliefs. Almost blinded in an industrial accident in Indianapolis, Muir believe that his sight was restored so that he could appreciate the natural beauty of "God's creations." For example, he called forests, "God's first temples." Roosevelt was also an avid outdoorsman. While the United States led the world in conserving wilderness areas, having established the first national park
at Yellowstone in 1872, it had no national conservation policy until Roosevelt's administration. He ordered that millions of acres be set aside as wildlife preserves and urged creation of new national parks. Conservation was typically Progressive in some ways. Experts would help the government serve the public good while preventing "special interests" from damaging the environment. But conservation also served efficiency and control, as conservation aimed to control the exploitation of minerals
and forests on national lands, not prevent it. In the West, water was especially scarce and required regulation in order to conserve and distribute it fairly. W.H. Taft ran as Roosevelt's successor (federal judge from Ohio and former governor of the Philippines - would later serve as a Supreme Court Justice from
1921-1930) But Taft, despite his Progressive policies, tended to ally with the more conservative wing of the Republican Party, and a dispute in 1910 with reform-minded officials within his administration alienated Progressives. In 1912, when Roosevelt failed in challenging Taft for the Republican nomination, he launched a new and independent Progressive Party. New Freedom and New Nationalism The Republican party divide (between Roosevelt and Taft) gave Wilson a resounding victory Some of Wilson's policies seemed more in line with Roosevelt's New Nationalism than his own New Freedom agenda of 1912, and he abandoned antitrust for more
government economic regulation. Wilson pushed Congress to create the Federal Reserve System in 1913, which gave government-regulated banks the ability to issue currency, help failing banks, and influence interest rates. In 1914, Congress, at Wilson's urging, also created the Federal Trade Commission, tasked with investigating and prosecuting "unfair" business activity such as price-fixing and monopoly. By 1916, Progressive-era efforts had vastly increased the powers of the national state.The
Expanding Role of Government How did government change during the Progressive Era?Progressives were interested in establishing a more transparent and accountable government which would work to improve U.S. society. These reformers favored such policies as civil service reform, food safety laws, and increased political rights for women and U.S. workers.
How did the role of government change during the Progressive Era quizlet?In the Progressive Era, people began to have more control over their government through the development of the recall, the initiative, and the referendum. However, the most important development was the 17th Amendment, which allowed people to vote for their Senators.
What progress was made during the Progressive Era?The leaders of the Progressive Era worked on a range of overlapping issues that characterized the time, including labor rights, women's suffrage, economic reform, environmental protections, and the welfare of the poor, including poor immigrants.
How did progressivism change American beliefs about the federal government quizlet?How did Progressivism change American beliefs about the federal government? Americans expected the government to play a more active role in regulating economy and solving social problems.
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